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FEDERAL AGENCY FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION

INTERREGIONAL LAW COLLEGE

SIBERIAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY

PHILOSOPHY

Workbook

for students of all specialties

full-time education

Krasnoyarsk 2009

Philosophy: Workbook for full-time students of all specialties / comp. HE. Gaidash; MPC SFU. – Krasnoyarsk, 2009. – 46 p.

In the workbook on philosophy, students are offered a set of tasks that must be completed in seminar classes and in the process of independent work. Completing assignments requires familiarization with scientific literature, primary source texts, encyclopedias and dictionaries. Students are given the opportunity to express their own views on philosophical issues.

Educational edition

PHILOSOPHY

Workbook

for students of all specialties

full-time education

Compiled by: Gaidash Olga Nikolaevna

PHILOSOPHY

Workbook

Student _____________________________________________________________

Group _____________________________________________________________

Teacher _____________________________________________________________

Subject. SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY

Task No. 1.

Task No. 2.

What are the main features of philosophical thinking?

Philosophy as self-reflection about the “universe” and man in it.

Philosophy and science, philosophy and religion.

Functions of philosophy.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task No. 3. Self-test of knowledge .

a) Structure of philosophical knowledge:

1) ontology, epistemology, logic, axiology, etc.;

2) ontology, gnosticism, logic, art history, ethnology, etc.;

3) anthropology, bioethics, pedagogy, psychology, synergetics, etc.;

4) all answers are incorrect.

b) What is the relationship between philosophy and worldview:

1) philosophy and worldview are identical;

2) philosophy is broader than worldview;

3) philosophy is the theoretical basis of a worldview;

4) philosophy and worldview are diverse concepts.

c) Materialism is called:

1) recognition of a reality external to a person, independent of him in its existence;

2) recognition of the primacy of matter in relation to consciousness;

3) the principle of the relationship between being and thinking, on the basis of which systems of ideas about the world are created;

4) recognition that all bodies consist of “elementary bricks” (electrons, protons, etc.).

d) Idealism as a view of the world is:

1) a system of knowledge that substantiates the importance of ideals in the life of society and individuals;

2) the doctrine that ideas are more real than material things;

3) recognition of the determining significance for a person of the spiritual aspects of social existence;

4) the doctrine according to which the primary and determining factor is either human consciousness or a certain spiritual force that determines the development of nature, society and man himself;

e) Which of the proposed functions helps a person’s orientation in the world?

1) epistemological;

2) methodological;

3) humanistic;

4) heuristic.

2. Complete the definitions.

Ontology_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Epistemology___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Axiology____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Materialism__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Idealism_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Dualism_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Agnosticism_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The principle of philosophical monism_______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

3. Fill out the table. The main types of worldviews and their specificity.

When analyzing types of worldview, use the definition of the philosopher V. Dilthey (1833-1911). He believed that a worldview is a coherent system of views that, based on constructing a picture of the world, resolves the question of the meaning of the world, and then derives from here the ideal and basic principles of life.

4. Make a diagram. How do philosophy and other humanities relate?

5. Comment on the text.

“Philosophy contains the claim: to find the meaning of life above all goals in the world - to reveal a meaning that embraces these goals, to realize, as if crossing life, this meaning in the present - to serve through the present the future - never to reduce any person or person in general to a means "(K. Jaspers).

___________________________________________________________________

Task No. 4. Creative questions and assignments.

Specificity of philosophy. Philosophy as science (Aristotle) and philosophy as “the love of wisdom” (Plato).

Philosophy and culture of thought. “Eternal” nature of philosophical problems.

Philosophy and mythology: two mirrors of existence.

Man and the world: is the world simple or complex, is it destroyed or absurd and other questions.

From Myth to Logos: the genesis of philosophical knowledge.

Philosophy and religion: a difficult path of relationship.

The mystical path to knowledge of truth (theosophy, etc.).

Ivan Karamazov, the hero of the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "The Brothers Karamazov", says that he does not deny God, but does not accept the world He created. Try to determine the nature of Ivan Karamazov's worldview. Develop this topic: acceptance or denial of the world as an essential characteristic of philosophical thinking.

Does philosophy have practical meaning?

Philosophy as a “metalanguage” of all sciences (M.M. Bakhtin).

The main types of self-determination of modern philosophy.

The ancient Roman sage Seneca wrote: “Philosophy is not a show fit for display to the crowd; one must be a philosopher not in words, but in deeds.” Think about what it means to be a “philosopher in practice”?

Subject. Ancient philosophy

Task No. 1. Make a plan for the topic you have studied.

Task No. 2. Make a brief summary of the questions asked.

Historical and cultural analysis of the prerequisites for the emergence of philosophy. Why is it in Greece that the birth of the Logos takes place?

The main periods of ancient philosophy, criteria for their identification. The main characters and their ideas.

The search for pure truth as the main human value.

Why is ancient philosophy so emotionally attractive?

Task No. 3. Self-test of knowledge.

Test control. Mark the correct answer.

a) The founder of the “line of materialism” is considered to be the ancient Greek philosopher:

1) Aristotle;

2) Democritus;

3) Parmenides;

4) Socrates.

b) The founder of the “line of idealism” is considered to be the ancient Greek philosopher:

1) Heraclitus;

2) Plato;

3) Epicurus;

c) Hellenic-Roman period of ancient philosophy. Match ideas and directions:

1) Epicureanism a) an expression of doubt about the possibility of human knowledge;

2) neoplatonism b) achieving happiness through “apathy” - the eradication of affects;

3) skepticism c) the doctrine of a higher being;

4) stoicism d) materialist philosophers,

affirming the principle of hedonism.

d) Which of the listed philosophers put number as the basis of the world?

1) Plato;

2) Aristotle;

3) Pythagoras;

4) Anaximander;

5) Anaximenes;

e) Ancient Greek philosophers were famous for their figurative phrases, which entered the everyday life of many peoples. Match the statements with their author.

1) Socrates a) “everything flows, everything changes; You cannot step into the same river twice;

2) Heraclitus b) “I know that I know nothing”;

3) Protagoras c) “Thinking and being are one and the same”;

4) Parmenides d) “Man is the measure of all things: those that exist, that they exist, those that do not exist, that they do not exist.”

2. Complete the definitions.

Cosmocentrism______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Hedonism_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Substance____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Ataraxia_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Metaphysics___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Dialectics____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Logos_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

State Autonomous Professional Educational Institution of the Tyumen Region "Tyumen Medical College" Workbook on the discipline OGSE.01. Fundamentals of philosophy For specialties: 060101 “General Medicine”, 060501 “Nursing”, 060102 “Midwifery” 060205, “Preventive Dentistry”, 060301 “Pharmacy” 1st year Teacher Kocharovskaya A.Ya. Tyumen -2013 Philosophy as an area of spiritual culture, its meaning and purpose. Task No. 1. Looks like... Sounds like... What associations does the term “philosophy” evoke in you? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 2. The term three times. Answer the questions. 1.What do you think this term means in this topic? 2.Where and in what context did you encounter this term? 3.What position do you take in assessing the term (positive, negative, neutral)? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 3. “Thin” and “thick” questions. Fill out the table “Thin” questions “Thick” questions Task No. 4. Memory map. (Mind Map or Mind Maps) method of information visualization. Study the “Philosophy” memory card offered to you. Answers to what “subtle” questions did you find there? ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 5. Read the text. Give it a title. Ask questions? Are they “thin” or “thick”? Enter them into the table “Thin” and “thick” questions” _____________________ The term “philosophy” is of ancient Greek origin. Literally translated, it means “love of wisdom” (“phileo” - love, “sophia” wisdom). It is believed that the word “philosophy” itself was first coined by Pythagoras (570-490 BC). In response to admiring words about his wisdom, he objected that only the Gods are wise, he is not a sage, but only a lover of wisdom, that is, not sophos, but philosophos. Pythagoras did not leave behind any writings, so the first author in whom the word “ philosopher" is Heraclitus (544-483 BC). The word "philosophy" first appeared in the works of Plato (427-348 BC), based on the thought of Pythagoras, he gives such a wonderful definition: “philosophy is likening God to the best of human ability.” Task No. 6. 7 lines. Read the text. Express its contents in seven sentences. Enter the information into the memory card. Philosophy is a reliable guide to wisdom. It should be emphasized that in the context of the new realities of cultural development, the connection between philosophy and wisdom inherent in ancient thinkers still retains its fundamental meaning. It is precisely at this critical time that the main purpose of philosophy is revealed with particular acuteness - to give a person reliable guidelines for wisdom. But what is wisdom? What qualities make a person not just smart, educated, but wise? It is intuitively clear that wisdom is associated with such a vision and understanding of reality, which surpasses ordinary and concrete scientific, special knowledge in its integrity, depth, scale, and practical effectiveness. There is a well-known aphorism that gives a concise but very accurate description of the differences between an intelligent and a wise person: “A smart person will always find a way out of a difficult situation, but a wise person will never fall into this situation.” Considering the formation of wise principles in the human mind as the main goal of philosophy, we will try to determine the main qualities that she strives to develop in each of you: * Breadth, scope and depth of meaningful experience. Undoubtedly, wisdom is synonymous with great life experience. A person accumulates this experience on the basis of understanding his own life, the life of nature, other people, and society as a whole. Philosophy seeks to generalize and comprehend the experience of humanity as a whole throughout its history. In this understanding, it relies on the experience of all sciences, all spheres of human activity, on the experience of all world history and culture. * The ability and tendency to generalize, to understand the meaning of what is happening. A necessary condition for the formation of wisdom is systematic comprehension and generalization of what is happening. A wise person learns lessons from the past and takes them into account when planning for the future. Systematic generalization of events and acquired knowledge allows you to steadily improve the strategy of your life and activities. Philosophy, studying the universal, strives to develop the ability to generalize in the person who studies it. At the same time, it focuses not only on understanding the experience of successful actions, but also on identifying false paths and typical mistakes in order to prevent them in the future. * Comprehensive vision of reality. Developed comprehensiveness of thinking is one of the main attributes of wisdom. It is the one-sidedness of approaches to phenomena, taking into account some qualities and connections while ignoring others that inevitably leads to a distortion of reality, false conclusions in knowledge and failures in practical activity. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of philosophy is to show a person the multidimensionality and complexity of reality, to keep people from the temptation of one-dimensional, simple solutions, and to teach a comprehensive approach to the phenomena under study. It is no coincidence that the philosophical attitude towards reality is characterized by the following orientation: “not to laugh, not to cry, but to understand” (B. Spinoza). * Development of reflective thinking. Reflexivity of thinking means a person’s developed ability for introspection, objective self-assessment, and self-criticism. “Know yourself” - this aphorism of the ancient Spartan sage Chilon is now one of the main guiding ideas of philosophy, without which a wise understanding of life and a wise attitude towards it is impossible. Objective introspection, self-esteem, and self-criticism allow a person to better understand both his strengths and weaknesses, to realize the reasons for his failures, and to find the most advantageous use of his strengths and abilities. * Ability to find the “golden mean” when solving complex problems. A wise person, making a choice in a difficult situation, strives to avoid extremes and find the optimal path. The entire experience of philosophy also teaches the ability to avoid opposite extremes, develops the ability to creatively combine the best qualities of many approaches, and rely on reliable, proven traditions in the search for something new. * Ability to foresee the future. As Western expert in the field of management theory R. Ackoff states: “wisdom is the ability to foresee the long-term consequences of actions taken, the willingness to sacrifice immediate gain for greater benefits in the future, and the ability to manage what is controllable without being distressed by what is uncontrollable.” . Philosophy, forming a modern culture of productive thinking, giving an understanding of universal laws, conditions and causes of development, thereby makes a person more vigilant and far-sighted in anticipating the future. And this makes it possible to plan your actions more confidently, avoid dead-end options and find the most effective ones. Thus, even a brief and far from complete description of the main guidelines of wisdom that philosophy seeks to develop shows that this is a unique, irreplaceable science that is essential for modern man and society. Summarizing what has been said, we can give an initial definition of the meaning of philosophy: philosophy is a generalized, holistic, global understanding of reality, with the goal of forming reliable guidelines for wisdom in a thinking person. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 7. POPS. Do all people philosophize? P (position)________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ O (reason)_______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ P (example)__________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ S (judgment)_________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 8. “In the world of wise thoughts” Read the well-known definitions of philosophy. Which one do you agree with? With which one not? Why? So, philosophy is: “Release of the spirit” (Julius Schrader). “Activities that bring about a happy life through reasoning and dialogue” (Epicurus). “The history of misconceptions on the path to truth” (Yuri Rybnikov). “The critical science of ignorance” (Eberhard Griseb “Thought released to the limits of attentive understanding” (Vladimir Bibikhin). “The science of principles and first causes” (Aristotle). “The science of all possible things - how and why they are possible" (Christian Wolf) "The science of the relationship of all knowledge to the essential goals of the human mind" (Immanuel Kant). "A science that allows some to have a philosophical attitude towards things, and others to their absence" (Gennady Malkin). "The beach on which all conventions and decency disappear , observed by science, and a person can throw himself naked into the element of thought or bask in its sun" (Joseph Levin). "Searching for dubious reasons to justify what one instinctively believes" (Aldous Huxley). "Knowledge through concepts" (Georg Hegel) "The thinking consideration of objects" (Georg Hegel). "Knowledge of meaning and familiarization with meaning" (Nikolai Berdyaev). "Knowledge of what is" (Ludwig Feuerbach). "Mediator between religion and science" (Sergei Lazarev). "Poetry". thoughts” (Avetik Isahakyan). “A seasoning without which all dishes seem tasteless, but which in itself is not suitable for food” (Ernest Renan). “Public consciousness, that is, consciousness that cannot but be expressed, consciousness out loud” (Merab Mamardashvili). "Guide to Life" (Pulla Raju). “The ability to give oneself an account of the obvious” (Merab Mamardashvili). “The ability to contemplate truth as it is” (Plato). “Philosophy is likening God to the best of human ability” (Plato). “Thinking worldview, ideological thinking” (Chanyshev) “School of love for truth” (Nikolai Berdyaev). "The main event of human presence in the world." (M. Heidegger) A look from the dictionary Philosophy is: “The science of man’s achievement of wisdom, of the knowledge of truth and goodness” (Vladimir Dal “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”). “The doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, of man’s relationship to the world” (“Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary”). “the study of the most fundamental and general concepts and principles relating to thinking, action and reality” (“Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy” “Philosophical Dictionary published by Penguin”) “A form of social consciousness, worldview, system of ideas, views of the world and place there is a person in it” (“Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary”). “A form of spiritual activity aimed at posing, analyzing and resolving ideological issues related to the development of a holistic view of the world and the place of man in it” (“Philosophical Dictionary”). A look from the textbook Philosophy is: “a person’s search and finding of answers to the main questions of existence” “a field of knowledge in which the initial, most general principles of understanding reality are considered” “a specific form of spiritual culture associated with comprehension by speculation of the essence of the world and man, his places in this world, attitude towards the world and the meaning of life" "a rational branch of spiritual culture inspired by the love of wisdom, which has as its subject the fundamental questions of human existence" "such a love for wisdom that forces a person, in his heightened conscientious attitude towards the world around him, to search and find answers to the main questions of your existence" "the most systematized, maximally rationalized worldview of its era" "this is a working state of mind. Philosophy explores, analyzes, synthesizes, generalizes. Draws conclusions, makes discoveries. The product of all this action is a worldview. Where there is reason, there is philosophy." Formulate your own definition of philosophy. Write it down. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 9. POPS Can philosophy be considered a science? P (position)________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ O (reason)_______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ P (example)__________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ C(judgment)__________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________ ________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 10.T – diagram. Compare philosophy and science. general philosophy science differences Task No. 11. Sinkwine. Compose a syncwine to the key concept of the topic. The word cinquain comes from the French "five". This is a text of five lines, which is built according to the rules. 1. In the first line, the topic is named in one word (usually a noun). 2. The second line is a description of the topic in two words (two adjectives). 3. The third line is a description of the action within the framework of this topic in three words (verbs) 4. The fourth line is a four-word phrase showing the attitude to the topic. 5. The last line is a one-word synonym that repeats the essence of the topic. 1._________________________________________________________________ 2._________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________________________________ 5._________________________________________________________________ Philosophy as a worldview Task No. 1. Listen to the information, fill out the diagram: “Structure of worldview” worldview content 1 2 3 4 Levels of reflection Levels of functioning in society of reality 5 8 6 9 7 7 Historical types of worldview mythology religion philosophy Task No. 2. Fill out the table ZHU on the topic “Mythological worldview” what we we know what we want to know we learned Task No. 3. POPS. Does modern man need mythology? P(position)_______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ O(reason)________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ P(example)________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ S(judgment)________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Task No. 3. Chamomile of questions. Sort the questions below into types. What type of questions are missing? Formulate it. Answer the questions: 1. What is religion? 2.What features characterize religion as a worldview? 3.What are the social, epistemological and psychological roots of religion? 4.Name the main functions that religion performs and reveal their content? 5.What place does religion occupy in modern society? What is its positive and negative role in society? Task No. 6. Abstract diagram. Using the information received in the lesson, complete a block summary on the topic “Philosophical worldview” Task No. 5. Fill out the comparative table: Historical types of worldview. Categories of comparison Subject and method of understanding the world Level of worldview Goal and objectives mythology religion philosophy Attitude to the individual Task No. 7. “I know five...” What can the study of philosophy give to every person (me personally)? _1________________________________________________________________ _2________________________________________________________________ _3________________________________________________________________ _4________________________________________________________________ _5________________________________________________________________ Task No. 8. Fill out the table. Functions of philosophy function content example Dictionary Faith is the experience of unshakable conviction in something; Will is a person’s ability to independently determine and regulate their own actions, while overcoming external and internal obstacles; Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity confirmed by practice; An ideal is a person’s idea of perfection, a guideline for human activity; A worldview is a system of generalized views of the world, a person’s place in it and his attitude to this world, as well as beliefs, feelings and ideals based on these views that determine a person’s life position, the principles of his behavior and value orientations; Worldview is a level of worldview that expresses the attitude towards the world around us through a system of sensory-visual images that make up the picture of the world; Worldview is a level of worldview, which is a system of views, concepts, ideas that reveal the essence of the relationship to the world. Attitude is a level of worldview that expresses a person’s attitude to the world through moods, feelings, assessments; Mythological worldview is the most ancient form of worldview, which is characterized by a symbolic, fantastic, holistic idea of nature, society, and man. Science is a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of knowledge about reality. An ordinary worldview is a “philosophy of life” that arises in the process of everyday practice, reflecting the external side of reality, similar among the mass of members of society placed in similar living conditions; Religion is a form of worldview in which the world in the human mind is doubled into this worldly (earthly, real, natural) and otherworldly (heavenly, supernatural, supersensible), and supernatural forces in the form of gods play a decisive role in the lives of people and the world; Theoretical worldview is a level of worldview generated by a person’s need to rationally explain the world, understand it and find one’s place in it; Beliefs are a firm, unshakable confidence in the truth of knowledge, a willingness to act in accordance with them; Philosophy is a rational area of spiritual culture, inspired by the love of wisdom, that studies extremely general, fundamental questions of the existence of nature, society and man; A philosophical worldview is a theoretically based system of the most general views on the world and man’s place in it; Values are generalized ideas about something as the most significant and preferred. Philosophical picture of the world Task No. 1. Glossary. Fill the table. The task is completed throughout the study of the entire topic TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE SYMBOL being other being substance matter movement space time ontology Task No. 2. Read the text. Complete a block - a summary on the topic About the concept of “picture of the world” The expression “picture of the world” appeared relatively recently; it became popular only in the twentieth century. A picture of the world is a set of ideas that has developed at a specific stage in the development of mankind about the structure of reality, the ways of its existence and change, formed on the basis of the original ideological principles and uniting the knowledge and experience accumulated by mankind. The picture of the world, like any cognitive image, simplifies and schematizes reality. The world as an infinitely complex, developing reality is always much richer than the ideas about it that developed at a certain stage of socio-historical practice. A picture of the world means, as it were, a visible portrait of the universe, a figurative and conceptual copy of the Universe, by looking at which you can understand and see the connections of reality and your place in it. It implies an understanding of how the world works, what laws govern it, what underlies it and how it develops. Pictures of the world assign a person a certain place in the Universe and help him orient himself in existence. They arise both within the framework of everyday life and in the course of the spiritual activities of human communities. There are several pictures of the world. An ordinary picture of the world that arises from everyday life: here a person stands in the center, since everyday life is a world where he is the main figure. A scientific picture of the world, or a scientific view created by specialist scientists. The scientific picture of the world is built around objects understood as independent of human subjectivity, free from the influence of our desires and peculiarities of perception. Science wants to see the world “as it is.” Religious picture of the world, ideas about the universe that have developed in the activities of religious groups. Here the main attention is paid to the relationship between everyday experience and the otherworldly, the divine. The esoteric concept of the Universe is knowledge gained through insights and revelations that appeared in a narrow circle of initiates and is still passed on through personal experience, from teacher to student (esoteric is a body of knowledge and spiritual practices closed to the uninitiated). The philosophical picture of the world arose in the middle of the first millennium BC along with the emergence of the philosophical teachings of the classical era. The world and man in philosophy were initially considered in connection with the idea of Reason. Thanks to reason, a person is able to understand the world and himself. Such comprehension is considered as the purpose of man and the meaning of his existence. A philosophical picture of the world is a generalized, expressed by philosophical concepts and judgments, theoretical model of existence in its correlation with human life, conscious social activity and corresponding to a certain stage of historical development. The main theme of philosophy is the relationship between man and the world. That is why philosophical pictures of the world are multiple and not similar to one another. They are always united by intellectual consideration and eternal doubt in their own statements, constant criticism. This sharply distinguishes the philosophical idea of the world from ordinary or religious views and makes philosophy similar to science. Created within the framework of ontology ((Greek on, ontos - existing, logos - teaching) - the doctrine of being), the philosophical picture of the world determines the main content of the worldview of an individual, social group, society. Being a rational-theoretical way of understanding the world, the philosophical worldview is abstract in nature and reflects the world in extremely general concepts and categories. Consequently, the philosophical picture of the world is a set of generalized, systemically organized and theoretically substantiated ideas about the world in its integral unity and the place of man in it. Unlike the religious picture of the world, the philosophical picture of the world always relies on the scientific picture of the world as a reliable foundation. Each of the pictures of the world gives its own version of what the world really is and what place a person occupies in it. Partly these pictures contradict each other, and partly they are complementary and can form a whole. Task No. 3. Term three times. In what phrases do you use the term “being” in speech? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ What synonyms for the word can you find for the term “being”? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ What content do you put into this concept? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Task No. 4. Using the teacher’s information, draw up a radial diagram (Spider, Daisy, Sun, etc.) on the topic “Genesis” Task No. 5. Using a dictionary, fill out the diagram “Basic forms of being” Genesis being Task No. 6. Five lines. Read the text. Express its contents in five sentences. 1._________________________________________________________________ 2._________________________________________________________________ 3._________________________________________________________________ 4._________________________________________________________________ 5._________________________________________________________________ The problem of substance in philosophy The first thing that strikes a person’s imagination when he observes the world around him is the amazing variety of objects, processes, properties and relationships. Living and inanimate, micro and macro, real and illusory, moment and eternity, beautiful and ugly. We are surrounded by forests, mountains, rivers, seas. We see stars and planets, admire the beauty of the northern lights and the flight of comets. The diversity of the world is beyond counting. In this regard, the question arises: in the existing diversity of things, phenomena, processes, there is something single, common, constituting the fundamental basis of everything that exists. In the history of philosophy, to designate such a fundamental principle, an extremely broad category is used - substance (from the Latin substantia - essence, that which lies at the basis). Substance means the first principle, the root cause of everything that exists. In the category of substance, the idea of an absolute beginning is fixed, which for its justification does not require anything else, does not depend on anything else and gives rise to something else. Substance is self-sufficient. The word-forming part of the term “first” does not mean that this phenomenon appeared first, giving rise to all the others. This is impossible in principle, since existence is absolute, eternal and infinite. “First” indicates that some form of being underlies all others and determines their essence (essence is the internal, deep, hidden, relatively stable side of a phenomenon that determines its nature, connections and development trends). For example, the genome underlies the functioning of any organism, determines its essence, i.e. for the organism it is “substance.” So, substance is what underlies the world and determines its essence. Substance is absolute, infinite, eternal, uncreated and indestructible, self-sufficient and diverse. As substances in philosophy, for the most part, matter and consciousness acted. Both they themselves and their relationship have always been the subject of heated debate, and the problem of the relationship between the material (natural) and the ideal (spiritual) one way or another, directly or indirectly, is found in almost every philosophical doctrine, which at one time gave F. Engels the basis to highlight it as the main question of philosophy. The main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship of the ideal to the material, or more precisely, consciousness to matter. It can be formulated this way: What comes first, matter or consciousness? Task No. 7. Using a dictionary, fill out the diagram “The Main Question of Philosophy” Task No. 9. What does it look like? How does it sound? - WHAT DOES MATTER LIKE? Thing, phenomenon, process, event... WHAT DOES IT SOUND? Saying, proverb, song... Task No. 10. Using the teacher’s information and the diagram “Modern scientific ideas about the structure of matter”, draw up the vocabulary card “Matter” MATTER origin definition synonym phrase annotation antonym meaning Modern scientific ideas about the structure of matter Task No. 11. Using information teacher, fill out a block of notes on the topic “Movement” movement development progress regression resting form of movement Task No. 12. Using the information from the teacher, fill out a table on the topic “Basic forms of movement” FORM CARRIER EXAMPLE SYMBOL physical-mega-level maxi-level micro-level chemical biological social Assignment No. 13. Fill out the ZHU table on the topic “Space and Time” I KNOW I WANT TO KNOW Assignment No. 14. Using the information provided by the teacher, complete a block summary on the topic “Space and Time” Assignment No. 15. Using the information provided by the teacher, Fill out problematic frame “Unity of the World”  PROBLEM OF THE UNITY OF THE WORLD  Formulation of the problem  Solution with justification  Illustration (example)  Instructive conclusion Dictionary Absolute or absolute (from lat. absolutus unconditional) - unconditional, free, perfect, complete, united, eternal, universal principle Actual (from Lat. actu action) - cash existence, the existence of reality Attribute - (from Lat. attributio attribution, sign) - necessary, essential, an inherent property of an object or phenomenon. Infinity or the infinite - the absence of an end, a limit (in space and time) Being - a philosophical category, in the broadest sense, fixing existence Virtual (from lat. virtualis possible) an object or state that does not really exist, but under certain prerequisites can be thought of as real Time - a philosophical category expressing the duration of ongoing processes, sequence, change of states during changes Movement - any change, change in general Dualism (from the Latin dualis dual) a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the fundamental principle of everything that exists, two independent and irreducible principles to each other Idealism (from the French idealisme from the Greek idea idea), a general designation of philosophical teachings that claim that spirit, consciousness, thinking, the mental is primary, and matter, nature, physical is secondary, derivative Ideal (from the Greek idea, form, image) - the way of being of an object and state reflected in consciousness Otherness - a philosophical category denoting that something has ceased to be what it was, has become different. Materialism (from the Latin materialis material) is a philosophical direction, according to which matter (objective reality) is the primary principle, and the ideal (concepts, will, spirit, etc.) is secondary Material (from the Latin materialis material) everything, what belongs to reality (objective reality), and is reflected by the sensations of the subject, existing independently of them Matter (from the Latin materia substance) - a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is reflected by our sensations, existing independently of them Monism (from the Greek monos one , the only) philosophical doctrine based on the recognition of one single fundamental principle of everything that exists Non-existence - absence, negation of being, non-existence in general Objective (from the Latin objectus located in front) - that which exists independently of individual consciousness Objective idealism is one of the main varieties of idealism, according to which the fundamental principle of the world is a certain universal super-individual spiritual principle (“idea”, “world mind”, etc.). Ontology - (from the Greek ón, gender óntos, being and logic), a section of philosophy that examines the universal foundations, principles of being, its structure and patterns. The main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship between spirit and nature, consciousness and matter Relativity or relative (from the Latin relativus referred to one place or another), mediated, or resulting from another, interconnected, or dependent on something, and means temporary, depending on certain conditions and circumstances and, therefore, changeable; and therefore imperfect and transitory Pluralism (lat. pluralis plural) philosophical position, according to which there are many substances Rest - a form of movement, movement in balance Potential (from the Latin potentia ability, strength, power, effectiveness) - the existence of possibility - that which, under certain conditions, can become actual Progress - (lat. progressus movement forward, success) the direction of progressive development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect Space - a philosophical category that expresses the extent, relative arrangement of objects Development - directed, irreversible, qualitative changes Regression (lat. regressus return, movement back) - a transition from higher forms of development to lower ones, movement back, changes for the worse. Substance (from the Latin substantia essence, something underlying) is what underlies everything, the ultimate foundation, the root cause of everything that exists. Subjective - (from the Latin subjectus - underlying) - existence through, in the consciousness of a person. Subjective idealism is one of the main types of idealism, the supporters of which either deny the existence of any reality outside the consciousness of the subject, or consider it as something completely generated by his activity . Philosophy of consciousness Task No. 1. Read the text. Draw up a descending graph - diagram “The main philosophical positions in solving the nature of consciousness. The problem of consciousness in philosophy. Modern ideas about consciousness have a long history. The concept of consciousness is key in philosophy, and the question of its nature is one of the most ancient. As soon as the first philosophers formulated the problem of human existence, they were faced with the problem of consciousness. Socrates defined the main task of philosophy this way: know yourself. In other words, know your nature, including the nature of your own consciousness. In modern philosophy, the following main positions can be identified in solving the problem of defining consciousness. Idealism, according to which consciousness is an independent substance, existing in the form of the world's absolute mind (objective idealism), or as the consciousness of the subject (subjective idealism). Idealists claim that consciousness is primary, i.e. it underlies everything that exists and determines its essence. Materialism, whose proponents believe that consciousness exists as a property or function of highly organized matter - the human brain. Materialists believe that consciousness is secondary, it appears as a result of the development of matter; its content depends on matter. Both idealism and materialism recognize the ideality of consciousness, contrasting it with matter. Within these directions, there are extreme positions in solving the problem of consciousness. Solipsism (lat. solus ipse only itself) is a radical philosophical position that recognizes individual consciousness as the only reality and denies the existence of the external material world. Supporters of the so-called vulgar materialism deny the idea of the ideality of consciousness and consider it a kind of matter. So, in the middle of the 19th century. German philosopher K. Vogt wrote that “thought has almost the same relationship to the brain as bile to the liver.” Currently, this point of view has been continued in the teaching of scientific materialism, which was formed in the late 50s. in the USA and Australia. Its representatives deny the specificity of consciousness and identify consciousness with neurophysiological phenomena. In Russian philosophy, the materialistic approach prevails in understanding consciousness. This approach seems to be the most justified both from the point of view of philosophy and science. Its essence can be expressed by the following definition. Consciousness is a brain function peculiar only to humans and associated with speech, which consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of their results, in the reasonable regulation and self-control of human behavior. (A.G. Spirkin Philosophy: Textbook. - M, 1998) Task No. 2. Read the text. Make a table - synthesis “Evolution of reflection” Evolution of reflection Type of reflection Contents Form of reflection Example The emergence of consciousness. In modern Russian philosophy (as in previous Soviet philosophy), a materialist explanation of the nature of consciousness, known as the theory of reflection, is widespread. The essence of this theory is that consciousness is the property of highly organized matter to reflect matter. Reflection is the reproduction of the properties of one object in another during interaction. Reflection, starting from the simplest forms, is characterized by a number of properties: 1) it involves not just changes in the reflecting system, but changes that are adequate to external influences; 2) reflection depends on what is reflected, it is secondary to it; 3) reflection depends on the environment and characteristics of the reflected system, which plays an active role in the reflection process. There are many examples of reflection: a scratch on the body (reflection of another material object after its interaction with the body), traces of a person on the ground (reflection of a person by the ground), traces of soil on a person’s shoes (reflection of the ground by a person), a change in the shape of an object when colliding with another object (car accident, projectile hitting a wall, etc. ), reflection of ancient animal bones on a stone, fingerprints, echo in a cave, reflection of sunlight by the Moon, reflection of the Moon, trees, mountains in a body of water... Thus, to a greater or lesser extent, reflection is inherent in all material objects when interacting with others (“Each thing is an echo and mirror of the Universe"). In its development, reflection went through three main stages. The first is reflection in inanimate nature. At this stage, reflection did not play a significant role; it simply accompanied physical and chemical processes and was passive in nature. The elementary forms of passive reflection are: mechanical, physical, chemical. The second stage is reflection in biological systems. Here the role of reflection changes radically. The result of reflection - information - is used for control and regulation. Information reflection is active. The forms of biological reflection (inherent in living organisms) are: irritability, sensitivity, mental reflection. Irritability is the simplest form of biological reflection - the reaction of living organisms (even plants) to objects and phenomena of the surrounding world (living and nonliving). An example is drying out, curling of leaves in the heat, changing their shape (returning to their previous position) after rain, the movement of a sunflower “behind the Sun”. Sensitivity is the next, higher form of biological reflection - the ability of living organisms to reflect the world around them in the form of sensations. Mental reflection is the systematization, comprehension of sensations, the ability of living organisms (animals, especially higher ones) to model behavior in order to adapt to the environment, to react in multiple ways to standard and non-standard situations that arise, and to find the right way out of them. The third stage in the development of reflection is reflection in the social environment. Here reflection takes the form of consciousness. This reflection occurs with the help of concrete sensory and conceptual images. These subjective images arise due to a person’s interaction with the outside world, which is accompanied by biochemical, physiological and nervous processes occurring in the brain. The most important characteristic of consciousness as the highest form of reflection is its activity. Several forms of consciousness activity can be distinguished. Selectivity and purposefulness of reflection. A person does not perceive different information equally; he predominantly perceives and remembers information that affects his needs and meets his interests. An advanced reflection of reality. A person learns not only what is, but also what will be. He needs this in order to prepare in advance for this future. Transformation of existence. Consciousness not only reflects the world, but also transforms it. Based on his needs and relying on existing knowledge, a person creates in his mind models of not yet existing, but possible objects and processes, and subsequently implements them. This is how second nature arises. Psychosomatic influences. A special form of consciousness activity is the influence of the psyche on bodily processes. Mental states, through the activity of the nervous system that controls internal organs, can have both negative and healing effects on bodily processes. Psychosomatic influences, the effects of the spirit on the flesh, are one of the most striking manifestations of the activity of consciousness. Task No. 3. Read the text. Fill out the frame.  CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE BRAIN  Statement of the problem  Solution with justification  Illustration (example)  Instructive conclusion Consciousness and the brain The problem of the relationship between consciousness and the brain is at the intersection of philosophy and science. The fact that the brain is the carrier of consciousness is evidenced by data from the biomedical sciences. It is well known that mechanical or other types of brain damage lead to disturbances in the structure of consciousness. Data from psychopharmacology, which studies the effects of psychotropic substances, also speak about the connection between consciousness and the brain. In addition, we can remind you of how a person degrades when he becomes dependent on alcohol or drugs that deform the functioning of the brain. In recent decades, science has been engaged in identifying the cerebral localization of mental functions, i.e. establishing which brain formations carry out a particular process. In the beginning, in animals, and now in humans, the cerebral representation of emotions was well established. By producing electrical stimulation of the corresponding parts of the brain, it is possible to evoke specified emotions (fear, anger, pleasure, etc.). The main direction in the study of the problem of “consciousness and the brain” is the work of deciphering the neurodynamic codes of mental phenomena. These studies became the basis of the information concept of the psyche and the ideal, developed by the Russian philosopher D.I. Dubrovsky. Formulating the essence of the general scientific problem of consciousness - the brain, Dubrovsky reduces it to two questions: How is the phenomenon of subjective reality connected with the brain process, if it is impossible to attribute physical characteristics to the phenomena of subjective reality, but brain processes have them? How does consciousness control human physical actions? Answering these questions, he comes to the conclusion that consciousness is information directly given to the individual, information as such. And the material carrier of this information is the neurodynamic code - a specific brain process in which this mental phenomenon is embodied. Therefore, the relationship between the ideal and the material should be considered as a relationship between information and the information carrier. The code for consciousness is the brain's neurodynamic processes: consciousness is an image, and the brain process is a code for this image. The brain is an instrument of consciousness. The work of the brain ensures the existence of consciousness. But the content of consciousness as a whole does not depend on brain processes. The information contained in consciousness appears as a result of interaction with the world. Phenomena of consciousness can cause bodily changes. The subject activates the code of his own free will. The code runs the corresponding program, so consciousness can have a psychosomatic effect. Task No. 4. Read the text. Draw up a diagram of Consciousness and Language In the broad sense of the word, language is any system of signs that allows communication, storage and transmission of information. In the narrow sense of the word, the term “language” is used to designate “verbal language” characteristic only of humans. This meaning is also used to interpret another concept “speech”. To avoid confusion, we will further use the concepts of “language” and “speech” in the following meanings: Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of thinking, cognition, communication, storage and transmission of information, as well as human control. Speech is an activity that is carried out using language. There is a close connection between the consciousness of language and speech. Sensations, feelings, emotions, intuition can exist outside of language, but thinking is inextricably linked with it. In its most general form, thinking can be defined as the process of operating with concrete sensory and conceptual images. In relation to thinking, language performs several functions. First, language serves as a form of expression of thoughts. The ideal content of thinking is materialized in language. In the process of awareness, a thought is cast into logical forms, clothed in a verbal shell. Without language there is no conceptual thinking. At the same time, language could not arise without the ability of people to think abstractly. The word, as psychologist L.S. Vygotsky aptly put it, is not only a fixer, but also an operator: a thought in a word is not just expressed, but also accomplished in the sense that, thanks to self-awareness, its further course is directed. This function can be called thought-forming. Another important property of language is that with its help a person can communicate with other people, remember or transmit any information. This is the so-called communicative function of language. Language, as a means of thinking, also serves as a means of obtaining new knowledge. This manifests its epistemological (cognitive) function. Language and thinking form a contradictory unity. They condition each other, which gives rise to the well-known formula: “Just as there is no language without thinking, so there is no thinking without language.” However, this does not mean that language and thinking are identical to each other. Thinking reflects being, and language designates it and expresses thoughts. Consciousness is subjective, ideal, but language is objective, material. In the unity of language and thinking, the determining side is thinking, consciousness. Being a reflection of reality, thinking determines the structure of language. A clear and harmonious thought is expressed in understandable and consistent speech. “He who thinks clearly speaks clearly,” says popular wisdom. In turn, speech affects thinking: established linguistic structures influence the construction of thoughts. Consciousness and language Task No. 5. 5 lines Analyze the presented diagram and express the connection between consciousness and matter in five lines. The connection of consciousness with matter appears in the following main aspects: _1________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ _2________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ _3________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ _4________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ _5________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ _conclusion_______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 6. Fill out the diagram. Structure of consciousness _________________________________________________________________ II IV I III Task No. 7. Read the text. Create and record a synopsis. Synopsis (Greek σύνοψις), from the Greek words: συν - with and όπτω - looking (synopsis) (review) - presentation in one general overview, in a condensed form, without detailed argumentation and without detailed theoretical reasoning, of one whole subject or one area knowledge. Consciousness and the unconscious Consciousness does not exhaust the entire wealth of human mental life. Along with consciousness, there is also a sphere of the unconscious in the human psyche. The unconscious is a set of mental phenomena, states and actions that influence human behavior, but are not realized by him, at least at the moment. Unconscious are dreams, hypnotic states, somnambulism, states of insanity, etc. The boundary between the conscious and unconscious is blurred; there are mental phenomena that migrate from the sphere of consciousness to the unconscious and vice versa. Despite the long and rich history of ideas about the unconscious, the philosophical concept of the unconscious was formulated only in the 20th century. One of the first in the history of science to try to solve this issue on the basis of extensive experimental material was the Austrian neuropathologist, psychiatrist and psychologist Z. Freud (1856 - 1939). S. Freud fundamentally criticizes the position that represents the unconscious as a lower form of mental activity, overcome through the emergence of consciousness. The unconscious, according to the scientist, has a biological nature. Its main function is protective. The unconscious reduces the load on consciousness from negative and painful experiences. To a first approximation, Freud's scheme looks like this: a person by nature has certain drives; The main thing that determines the psyche is sexual desire, designated by the term “libido”. Psychic energy libido is the main source of the entire psyche. Therefore, Freud associated the process of development of consciousness primarily with the phases of the child’s sexual development, which begins immediately after the birth of the baby. But the free expression of sexual desire is suppressed by society, limited by the rules of decency and prohibitions. And then two oppositely directed processes come into play: “repression” and “sublimation.” Forbidden desires, shameful motives, criminal actions - all that. what cannot be open to people is repressed into the area of the unconscious, but continues to live in the human psyche, exerting a great influence on the actions and mood of the individual. But libido energy cannot, constantly accumulating, not find some outlet. It's like in a steam boiler: if you close the drain valve and continue to heat the boiler, it may end in an explosion. Therefore, a person’s mental defense mechanism is triggered. Libido energy finds transformed forms of discharge and is carried out in permitted forms of activity: sports, work, creativity. This will be sublimation. And if the energy does not find such ways of discharge, then there is a high probability of mental breakdown. Z. Freud proposed his own model of subjectivity, which represents both the conscious and unconscious spheres. The structure of subjective reality is as follows: “It”, or “Id” - the deep layer of unconscious drives of the individual, in which the principle of pleasure predominates; “I” or “Ego” is the conscious sphere, consciousness and self-awareness of the individual; “Super-I”, or “Super-Ego” - attitudes of society and culture, moral censorship, conscience. The “super-ego” performs repressive functions. “I” is an intermediary between the outside world and “It”. The “I” strives to make the “It” acceptable to the world or to bring the world into conformity with the desires of the “It.” To illustrate the relationship between the “I” and the “Id,” S. Freud introduces the image of a rider and a horse. “I” is the rider driving the horse – “It”. In a normal situation, the “I” dominates the “It” in its own action. Neurosis occurs when the contradictions between the aspirations of the “Id” and the attitudes of the “Super-Ego” become insurmountable and the “Id” breaks out of the control of the “I”. According to S. Freud, all people are neurotic because they live in a culture that suppresses fundamental biological drives: aggressiveness, destructiveness, sexuality, etc. The only question is the degree of neuroticism. In the soul of every modern person there is a conflict between the “It” and the “Super-Ego”. The only way out is to establish a reasonable compromise. The instrument of this compromise is the “I”. The more conscious the inner life of a person is, the less neurotic that person is. Freud developed a whole system of techniques, called “psychoanalysis,” designed to solve this problem. The works of C. G. Jung (1875-1961), a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist, a follower of S. Freud, are important for understanding the unconscious. Having abandoned the general definition of the unconscious, C. G. Jung fundamentally disagreed with S. Freud on the issue of the nature and functions of the unconscious. In his opinion, the unconscious is not biological, but symbolic in nature. In addition, the unconscious does not perform a protective function, being a kind of pit into which everything negative is dumped, a compensatory one. The unconscious complements consciousness to completeness. According to C. G. Jung, the unconscious exists in personal and collective forms. The personal unconscious is all the psychological acquisitions of personal existence - thought out and felt, and then forgotten, repressed or suppressed. The collective unconscious has a transpersonal form and has never been the subject of conscious perception or feeling. The collective unconscious arises from the hereditary possibility of mental functioning in general, from the hereditary structure of the human brain and manifests itself in the form of stable mythological motifs, plots and images that arise anywhere and everywhere, regardless of the historical era or cultural tradition. If the personal unconscious is structured (as with S. Freud) in the form of complexes, then the structure of the collective unconscious is determined by archetypes. Archetypes are universal structures of the human psyche. The universal human prototypes, archetypes, include the images of mother earth, hero, sage, etc. The “Shadow” archetype is an image of everything base in a person, everything antisocial in him. “Persona” is a screen or mask that a person uses to hide his true “I”. The “Anima” archetype represents the feminine principle in a man, while the “Animus” archetype represents the masculine principle in a woman; they lead to mutual understanding between men and women, but can also lead to psychological crises. “Self” represents all human life activities aimed at achieving integrity and unity. Archetypes underlie cultural symbolism, determine the content of myths and beliefs, indirectly determine the nature of philosophical teachings, etc. In conclusion, we note that the unconscious and the conscious are two relatively independent sides of a single subjective reality of a person; There are quite frequent contradictions and sometimes conflicts between them, but they are interconnected, interact with each other and are capable of achieving harmonious unity. The unconscious contains rich possibilities for rationalizing human activity. Consciousness, to a large extent shaping the unconscious, is generally capable of controlling it, as well as determining the general strategy of human behavior. And although human behavior, especially social behavior, is determined by consciousness, there is also a place in it for the unconscious _______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Synopsis Task No. 8. Read the text. Design the “Fishbone” diagram - a fish skeleton. The head is the problem; upper bones - properties of consciousness; their lower contents; tail - conclusion Properties of consciousness Activity: consciousness is associated with activity, with an active effect on the world. Selective nature: consciousness is not directed at the whole world as a whole, but only at certain of its objects (most often associated with some unrealized needs). Ideality (generalization and abstraction): consciousness operates not with real objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, but with generalized and abstract concepts, devoid of some of the attributes of specific objects of reality. Integrity: the consciousness of a mentally healthy person, as a rule, has integrity. Within this property, internal conflicts of values or interests are possible. In some types of mental illness, the integrity of consciousness is disrupted (schizophrenia). Consistency: relative stability, continuity of consciousness, determined by memory. The constancy of consciousness is determined by the properties of the individual. Dynamicity: its changeability and ability for continuous development, determined by short-term and rapidly changing mental processes that can be fixed in the state and in new personality traits. Distortion: consciousness always reflects reality in a distorted form (some of the information is lost, and the other part is distorted by individual characteristics of perception and personal attitudes). Subjectivity: consciousness cannot be “nobody’s.” It always has its own carrier. Each person's consciousness is different from the consciousness of other people. This is due to a number of factors: genetic differences, upbringing conditions, life experience, social environment, etc. The ability to reflect: consciousness has the ability to introspect and self-assess, and can also imagine how other people evaluate it. Task No. 9. Fill out the diagram Functions of consciousness Dictionary Information (from the Latin informatio, explanation, presentation, awareness) - information about something, regardless of the form of its presentation. In modern science, two types of information are considered: Objective (primary) information - the property of material objects and phenomena (processes) to generate a variety of states that, through interactions, are transmitted to other objects and imprinted in their structure. Subjective (secondary) information is the semantic content of objective information about objects and processes of the material world, formed by the human consciousness with the help of semantic images (words, images and sensations) and recorded on some material medium. Reflection is the reproduction of the properties of one object in another during interaction. Speech is an activity using language. Human consciousness is the highest form of mental reflection of reality formed in the process of social life in the form of a generalized and subjective model of the surrounding world in the form of verbal concepts and sensory images. Language is a historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies the work of thinking and is a tool of cognition, communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society. Language is any system of signs that allows communication, storage and transmission of information. System of tasks Cognition Task No. 1. Make a logical chain of the concepts of cognition, knowledge, information, consciousness. Task No. 2. Fill out the diagram. The main question of philosophy. The question of the relationship between the material and ideal nature and spirit of matter and consciousness. Two sides of the main question of philosophy, ontological and epistemological. Task No. 3. Fill out the diagram. Object and subject of cognition Task No. 4. Fill in the table. The role of practice in the process of cognition Practice Source of knowledge Explanation Example Basis of knowledge Purpose of knowledge Criterion of truth Task No. 5. Fill out the diagram. Levels of cognition Cognition Task No. 6. Create a glossary on the topic “Levels of cognition” definition illustration sensation perception representation concept judgment inference Task No. 7. Fill out the diagram. The main features of truth Truth Task No. 8. Come up with a syncwine “Truth”. Cinquain - a five-line poetic form    The first line - the theme of the cinquain, contains one word (usually a noun or pronoun) that denotes the object or subject that will be discussed. The second line is two words (most often adjectives or participles), they describe the characteristics and properties of the item or object selected in the syncwine. The third line is formed by three verbs or gerunds that describe the characteristic actions of the object.   The fourth line is a four-word phrase that expresses the personal attitude of the author of the syncwine to the subject or object being described. The fifth line is a synonym, one summary word that characterizes the essence of the subject or object. Task No. 9. Fill out the “daisy of questions” on the topic “Misconception.” Task No. 10. Read the text. Design the Fishbone Criteria of Truth diagram. The problem of truth is inextricably linked with the search for its criterion of the method by which the objectivity of knowledge is established. This problem has always been central to the theory of knowledge. There are many solutions to it in philosophy. A significant part of modern philosophers consider practice to be the main criterion of truth. It has all the necessary properties for this. Practice is an objective, material process. It serves as a continuation of natural processes, unfolding according to objective laws. At the same time, the subject, his knowledge, and will participate in practice. In practice, sensory concreteness, immediate reality and universality are intertwined, since practice is not limited to the activity of the individual subject of cognition. In short, practice involves a transition from thought to action, to material reality. At the same time, success in achieving the goals indicates the truth of the knowledge on the basis of which these goals were set, and failure indicates the unreliability of the initial knowledge. Practice is the main criterion of truth, but not the only criterion. The practice itself is historically limited. In addition to practice in knowledge, there are other criteria of truth. Their value is obvious where practice is not yet able to determine truth and error. Some philosophers consider the criterion of truth to be the data of sensations and perception, the correspondence of knowledge to sensory experience, i.e. obviousness. It would be wrong to deny the definite role of this criterion. Sensory experience in the knowledge of individual phenomena and their properties is a sufficient criterion of truth. However, directly by the data of feelings it is impossible to show any general judgment, not to mention a more complex theoretical system. After all, each general judgment essentially covers an infinite number of individual objects, and no matter how large the number of observations, it cannot cover all cases. Many thinkers highlight the logical criterion. Its essence is in the logical consistency of thought, in its strict adherence to the laws and rules of logic, consistency. The criterion of coherence (systematicity) assumes that new knowledge must be well consistent with those results that are already assessed as true. Such fundamental knowledge is represented by the philosophical principles of causality, unity of the world, conservation of energy, etc. However, this criterion is also limited. General provisions from which other provisions are derived do not always turn out to be true. Cognition develops and many provisions recognized as obvious truths are revised and replaced by other provisions. Modern science is not inclined to accept any theoretical positions as self-evident; it questions any position previously considered sacred. The heuristic criterion comes into force when the above methods of limiting true knowledge from false knowledge do not allow making a decision. Heuristics are characterized by the accumulation of new knowledge. Of the two theories, the more heuristic, and therefore true, is the one in which theoretical growth is ahead of empirical growth, i.e. theory helps to predict new facts, ensures the growth of knowledge, and does not simply systematize what is already known. The conventional criterion determines the truth of knowledge by a matter of conditional agreement. An important place is occupied by the axiological criterion, i.e., appeal to general worldview, general methodological, socio-political, moral and aesthetic principles. Aesthetic criteria: simplicity, beauty, harmony. The essence of the simplicity criterion is as follows: of two theories, preference should be given to the one that explains reality more simply. Beauty is an even more subjective criterion, expressing personal satisfaction with the results of knowledge. Task No. 11. Conduct reflection using the “Five Fingers” method. Circle your hand and on each finger write the answer to the corresponding question M (little finger) – thought process. What knowledge and experience have I gained today? B (unnamed) – target proximity. What did I do today and what did I achieve? C (medium) - state of mind. What was my prevailing mood, state of mind today? U (index) - service, help. How did I help, please or contribute? B (large) - vigor, physical fitness. How was my condition today? What have I done for my health? Dictionary Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about an object and therefore it cannot be refuted in the course of further development of knowledge Agnosticism (from the Greek a negative prefix, gnosis knowledge, agnostos inaccessible to knowledge) a philosophical direction that affirms the unknowability of the world Perception is a holistic image of an object , arising as a result of its direct impact on the senses. Perception is formed on the basis of sensations, representing their combination Epistemology (Greek gnosis knowledge, and logos word) - theory of knowledge Misconception is an unintentional discrepancy between knowledge and reality Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to reality, or objective knowledge The specificity of truth is the dependence of knowledge on connections and interactions inherent in certain phenomena, from the conditions, place and time in which they exist and develop Lie - the deliberate elevation of obviously incorrect ideas into truth The object of knowledge is what confronts the subject, what his practical and cognitive activity is aimed at Objective truth - this is the content of knowledge that is determined by the object and does not depend on the subject of knowledge. Relative truth is fundamentally correct knowledge, which is incomplete, inaccurate and which deepens in the course of the development of knowledge. Sensation is a sensory image of a separate property of an object. Cognition is the process of a person obtaining something new. knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement. Concept - is an elementary form of thought in which objects are displayed in their general and essential features and characteristics. Truth is knowledge corresponding to reality from the point of view of the subject. Practice is the purposeful sensory-objective activity of the subject to transform the surrounding world. Representation is the image of a separate object preserved in the mind, previously perceived by a person Rationalism is a philosophical doctrine that absolutizes rational knowledge, believing that only the mind is capable of cognizing existing Rational knowledge is abstract, logical thinking Sensualism is a philosophical doctrine that absolutizes the role of sensory knowledge, it is believed that all knowledge comes from sensory perception Skepticism ( from the Greek skeptikos considering, exploring) a philosophical direction that questions the possibility of knowing reality or some fragment of it The subject of knowledge is the one who carries out purposeful cognitive activity, or, more simply, the one who knows something Subjective truth is the form , the method of existence of truth in the consciousness of the cognizing subject Judgment is a connection of concepts in which something is affirmed or denied Inference is a process as a result of which a new judgment is obtained from two or more judgments with logical necessity Sensory cognition is cognition with the help of the senses Anthroposociogenesis: problems and discussions Task No. 1. Fill out the diagram “Main directions in solving the problem of human origins” Task No. 2. Based on the information presented, fill out the diagram Social biological stages of human evolution Task No. 3. Fill out the diagram Factors of anthroposociogenesis Main factors of anthroposociogenesis Task No. 4. Fill out the diagram “Features of human evolution” Task No. 4. Fill out the table. Theories of anthroposociogenesis author Engels Friedrich (1820-1895) Ernst Cassirer (1874 - 19450 Porshnev B.F. (1905 - 1972) Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) Johan Huizinga (1872 - 1945) content main idea + _ Task No. 5. “Grow up” “Tree of Predictions” on the topic “Prospects for Human Evolution” Tree of Predictions The rules for working with this technique are as follows: the trunk of the tree is the topic, the branches of the assumption, the “leaves” are the justification for these assumptions, arguments in favor of this or that opinion Task No. 6. Using the technique “ Insert”, carry out reflection I - interactive N - noting S - system E - effective R - reading and T - thinking V + - ? self-activating system markup for effective reading and thinking "V" - already knew " + " - new " - " - thought differently "? " - did not understand, there are questions The problem of human nature Task No. 1. The “Domino” principle. The problem of human nature is one of the philosophical problems of medicine. Using a Domino discussion (in the process of discussing problems, answering questions is a condition for creating new problem situations and formulating a new question; questions can arise until the truth becomes clear and the problem is resolved), show how philosophical problems related to medical practice? Task No. 2. Fill out the table and formulate the problem of human nature. Biological and social in man, biological social. Task No. 3. Fill out the diagram. The problem of human nature Task No. 4. Analyze dictionary entries about various scientific and philosophical doctrines. Fill out the diagram sociologizing approach biologizing approach Existentialism (French existentialisme from Latin exsistentia - existence), philosophy of existence - a direction in the philosophy of the 20th century, understands man as a special principle in the world, not reducible to any external laws and qualities, but explainable only based on his individual experience and fate. Protesting against the possibility of imposing common standards and values on a person, regardless of their natural or social nature, the researcher J.-P. Sartre wrote that a person does not have “nature”. His existence in the world is always a unique experience of freedom, through which a person creates both the external world and himself. Racism is a set of views based on the principles of the physical and mental inequality of human races and the decisive influence of racial characteristics on the abilities, intelligence, morality, behavioral characteristics and character traits of the human individual, and not of society or a social group. Racism necessarily includes ideas about the original division of people into superior and inferior races, of which the former are the creators of civilization and are called upon to dominate the latter. The implementation of racist theories in practice sometimes finds expression in policies of racial discrimination. Eugenics (from the Greek eugenēs - good kind), the doctrine of human hereditary health and ways to improve its hereditary properties, about possible methods of actively influencing the evolution of humanity in order to further improve its nature, about the conditions and laws of inheritance of giftedness and talent, about possible limitations transmission of hereditary diseases to future generations. The term "E." first proposed by the English biologist F. Galton in the book “The Heredity of Talent, Its Laws and Consequences” (1869). There are positive and negative eugenics. The goal of positive eugenics is to increase the reproduction of individuals with characteristics that can be considered valuable to society, such as high intelligence and good physical development or biological fitness. Negative eugenics seeks to reduce the reproduction of those who may be considered mentally or physically underdeveloped or below average. Eugenics was widely popular in the first decades of the 20th century, but later became associated with Nazi Germany because fell on a par with Nazi crimes such as racial hygiene, Nazi experiments on people and the destruction of “undesirable” social groups, which is why its reputation suffered significantly. However, by the end of the 20th century, developments in genetics and reproductive technologies again raised questions about the meaning of eugenics and its ethical and moral status in the modern era. The concept of Christian personalism is associated with the substantiation of the significance of internal spiritual experience and the individual responsibility of a person for his free choice. The value of an individual personality in Christian personalism is determined by its direct correlation with the Absolute Person, with God, whose “image and likeness” it acts. The Divine thereby becomes the basis for the exaltation of the human. The rationalistic concept of the essential feature of a person becomes the presence of reason and consciousness. Unlike animals, man is able to comprehend the deep connections and laws of external reality, and plan his actions in accordance with the knowledge gained. Reason is the principle through which the natural in man is most radically overcome. Sociobiology is a direction of scientific research into the biological foundations of the behavior of all living beings, including humans. The identification of common patterns of group behavior of humans and animals allows, according to sociobiologists (Wilson E., Smith J., Hamilton W., Ayala F., Flor G., etc.), to predict the results of human actions. Supporters of this direction insist on a wider involvement of biology to knowledge of animal and human behavior, its origin, essence and existence. To this end, they are trying to harmonize the data of genetics, ecology, ethology and evolutionary theory and then integrate these sciences with socio-political and humanitarian knowledge, which would make it possible to obtain and predict the results of people's social behavior with accuracy and certainty. Marxism is a philosophical, political and economic doctrine and movement founded by Karl Marx in the mid-19th century. K. Marx stated that “the essence of man is the totality of all social relations.” Human nature is shaped by society and changes along with changes in the historical situation. A person’s consciousness and thinking arise as a social product and, therefore, turn out to be secondary in relation to his social existence. On this basis, specifically human material and spiritual needs are formed, which, along with other characteristics, also determine the essence of man. Defining the social essence of man, emphasizing the importance of his social connections and characteristics, Marxism does not at all level the characteristics of individual individuals, does not belittle their specific qualities as individuals endowed with character, will, abilities and passions. However, biological characteristics do not play a decisive role in the formation of a person’s essence. Task No. 5. POPS. P (position)________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ O (reason)_______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ P (example)__________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ C (judgment)__________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ The problem of determining the essence of a person Assignment No. 1. “Six Thinking Hats.” white hat blue hat green hat red hat Analyze the presented statements about the person, “putting on” successively the thinking hats black hat yellow hat  Man! It's great! It sounds... proud! Human! We must respect a person (Maxim Gorky)  Man is a social animal that cannot stand its relatives. (Eugene Delacroix)  Man is the only creature that is afraid of being what it is. (Albert Camus)  Man is the measure of all things (Protagoras)  The notorious missing link between the ape and the civilized man is us. (Konrad Lorenz)  Man is a part of the whole, which we call the Universe, a part limited in time and space (Albert Einstein)  The same thing happens to a man as to a tree. The more he strives upward, towards the light, the deeper his roots go into the earth, downwards, into darkness and depth - towards evil (Friedrich Nietzsche)  Man is the center and goal of his life (Erich Fromm)  Earthly man is a weak soul, burdened with a corpse (Epictetus)  You can’t cut anything straight out of such a crooked log as a man. (Immanuel Kant)  If man created man, he would be ashamed of his work.  (Mark Twain)  What a miracle of nature - man! (William Shakespeare)  Man is nothing more than a projection of his free decisions (J.-P. Sartre)  Man is a social animal (Aristotle)  Man is one who does not act from calculation (Confucius)  Man - is a reasonable individual striving for maximum profit (Wall-street journal)  Man is a creature that gets used to everything (F. Dostoevsky)  Man is a creature that is always in a state of becoming" (M. Mamardashvili)  Man is together deity and insignificance (V.S. Solovyov)  Man is the key to the knowledge of the Universe (Teilhard de Chardin)  Man is the sum of the World, an abbreviated summary of it (P.A. Florensky)  Man is a tightrope walker who walks on a wire, at one end of which is his mind, consciousness and soul, and at the other - body, instinct, everything earthly, subconscious, mysterious. (Aldous Huxley) Task No. 2. Fill out the diagram. Definition of the essence of man Task No. 3. Fill out the table The uniqueness of man, content, meaning uniqueness irreplaceability uncertainty irreducibility ineffability Freedom and responsibility of the individual Task No. 1.”In the world of wise thoughts. “Freedom is not idleness, but the ability to freely manage your time and choose your occupation; in short, to be free means not to sell yourself to idleness, but to decide for yourself what to do and what not to do. What a great blessing is such freedom!” J. de La Bruyère “Freedom is the price of the victory that we have won over ourselves. "K. Mati "Freedom is, first of all, not privileges, but responsibilities" A. Camus "Freedom is the right to inequality" N.A. Berdyaev “Freedom does not lie in not restraining oneself, but in controlling oneself.” F.M. Dostoevsky “Freedom presupposes restrictions and is based on them. "V. Frankl “He who can not lie is free” A. Camus “What is freedom? - Clear conscience. » Periander “Freedom is positive creative power, not justified or conditioned by anything. Freedom is the power to create out of nothing. Freedom is creativity” N.A. Berdyaev "Freedom is a solitary and calm consciousness of power." F.M. Dostoevsky Freedom is action in accordance with a self-set, not imposed goal" Immanuel Kant "Freedom without equality is privilege and injustice. Equality without freedom is slavery and an animal state" M.A. Bakunin Task No. 2. Fill out the diagram. The main positions in solving the problem of freedom. Task No. 3. Fill out the diagram Task No. 4. Fill out the diagram Levels of freedom Task No. 5. Strategies for gaining freedom will Task No. 6. Fill out the comparative table freedom self-will arbitrariness Task No. 7. Analyze the diagram using the concepts of internal and external, absolute and relative, formal and real freedom.Dictionary Voluntarism - the idea that a person’s will and his actions do not depend on what external causes and factors, therefore, a person is absolutely free. Will is a person’s conscious desire to achieve a goal. Determinism is a philosophical principle that affirms the universal conditionality of phenomena and events, the universal nature of causality. Indeterminism is a philosophical principle that denies the existence of a general and universal relationship between phenomena and events, the universal nature of causality Necessity is the connection of phenomena, which inevitably leads to the emergence and development of a phenomenon that exists only in one way and not otherwise. Responsibility - the obligation placed on someone or taken by someone to account for their actions and accept blame for possible consequences. Arbitrariness - raising one's will to the rank of law for others, subordinating the will of others, violence, dictatorship; actions according to the principle “Do what I want!” Freedom is a specific way of human existence associated with a conscious choice of behavior in accordance with necessity and its implementation in practical activities. Free will is a concept that means the possibility of unimpeded internal self-determination of a person in fulfilling certain goals and objectives of the individual. Self-will is disobedience to order, from the pure spirit of contradiction, promiscuity; actions according to the principle “I do what I want!” » Randomness is a connection of phenomena that does not follow from the internal laws of a given process, therefore it may or may not lead to the emergence of a process Fatalism - belief in fate, fate; worldview position, according to which all processes occurring in the world are initially predetermined, subject to the rule of necessity, therefore real freedom does not exist; it is an illusion. The meaning and values of human life Task No. 1. Fill out the comparative table. Lines of comparison There is no meaning Meaning is experiences, emotions, goals, self-esteem, communication, attitude to the world as a whole. Conclusion________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 2. Fill out the table - synthesis. teaching hedonism eudaimonism utilitarianism pragmatism perfectionism altruism content sublimation deviation The problem of the meaning of life in philosophy The meaning of life is a philosophical category that reflects a long-term, stable task that has become an internal conviction of the individual, has a value, and is realized in the process of life. Does human life have meaning? Where to look for the meaning of life? a super task that is realized in the process of life. Teachings about the meaning of life Task No. 3. Fill out the meta-plan assessment of the life significance for the subject of objective circumstances and his actions in these circumstances Task No. 4. Fill out the Tree of Life diagram Global problems. The future of humanity. Task No. 1. Looks like... Sounds like... What associations does the term “global problems of humanity” evoke in you? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 2. Fill out the daisy of questions on the topic “Global Problems” ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 3. Fill out the diagram Definition of global problems definition quantitative attribute features qualitative attribute Task No. 4. Using the diagram, characterize the reasons for the emergence of global problems ___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Task No. 5. Fill out the diagram HRP Factors HRP Task No. 6. Fill out the table Classification of global problems Intersocial Natural social Anthroposocial GP relationship system Task No. 7. Read the text. Fill out the diagram Ways out of global problems Finding ways out of global problems. There are few options for solving the problems that have arisen. But the whole question is not this, but whether the current situation is adequately reflected in them and whether the proposed “recipe for salvation” is implementable in practice. Option one (it should be defined as traditional). It boils down to the statement: the problem as such does not exist at all, and individual negative phenomena are unnecessarily dramatized. Nature is wise and strong enough. She always corrected what man had done. After all, people have survived many natural disasters. There is nothing new in what is being said today. Humanity survived then, and will survive now. Option two (it can be defined as scientific. Scientism (Latin scientia - science) is a philosophical and humanitarian orientation towards science, assessing it as the highest stage of development of the human mind, absolutizing its role in the system of culture and people's lives. Its supporters express the idea of the possibility of complete transforming the natural environment, artificially creating a new environment in which a person could live. This idea logically flows into another: it is possible to replace not only the biosphere, but radically, based on the achievements of modern science, to change the person himself. In fact, we are talking about the creation of a being , which only superficially resembled a person. Fortunately, this is still a formal possibility. Option three (it can be called anti-scientific). It boils down to a call (quite in the spirit of Rousseau) to abandon all achievements of scientific and technological progress, because only such a refusal will allow one to reduce minimize negative impact on the natural environment. Option four (situational-tactical), which involves, while maintaining economic progress, each time looking for a specific solution to emerging problems. It should be recognized that, despite all the promise of this option, it does not solve global, planetary problems - it only postpones it for some time. Option five (anthropological). It appeared as a result of overcoming sociologism and technocracy in global studies. The main problem and at the same time the main means of solving problems is now seen as a person, his value orientations and attitudes. The new approach is opposed to the view that views global problems only as a result of the social structure, economic and technological characteristics, and man as a passive victim of the course of world development. Now it has become clear that the fate of the world ultimately depends on issues of a spiritual order: the formation and strengthening of a new ethics in the mass consciousness, with the development of culture and its humanization. There are good reasons for this, because people’s position in life, their way of thinking largely determines their course of action, real actions, and ultimately the result they strive for. This was noticed by Marcus Aurelius, who loved to repeat: “Our life is what we think about it.” Without appropriate human qualities, neither the use of environmentally friendly technologies, nor a reasonable attitude towards natural resources, nor the establishment of a fair economic order is possible. Finally, a reasonable formulation of the goals of the modern as a single whole is impossible. At the same time, it is obvious that changing centuries-old established ideas about the world, eliminating outdated stereotypes of thinking and establishing new humanistic principles in consciousness is not yet a solution to universal human problems. Although this is necessary, it is only the first step towards overcoming them. The basis of the updated worldview should be a new humanism, which would reflect both new content and new features of social relations. It should be focused on developing a global consciousness and include at least three fundamental principles: a sense of globality, intolerance of violence, and love of justice. Global consciousness is, first of all, the consciousness that planet Earth is our common home. The development of civilization has made all parts of humanity and all people dependent on each other. Any large-scale action in one point on the planet can entail consequences in other, very distant points. Whether people want it or not, they are placed in a relationship of brotherly dependence. Does this dependence presuppose the obligation of self-denial? For example, a separate state - should it, in the light of universal interdependence, renounce its national interests in the international arena? It is obvious that unilateral self-denial “in the name of the global good” can turn into a disaster for the citizens of this state. Fraternal dependence does not at all mean that humanity has merged into a single mass, indistinguishable within itself. On the contrary, it remains a multitude of diverse subjects, differing in their individual characteristics. Therefore, fraternal dependence is a relationship between independent partners who respect themselves and other partners, who boldly declare their interests, but know how to take into account the interests of others. The interests of others can be perceived as something important and significant, and without renouncing yourself, your aspirations and values. In relation to modern conditions, a lot is said about the “new humanism” as a kind of universal unifying principle. Its essence lies in the establishment of such norms and principles of existence that would reflect the vital interests of all people on the planet and therefore would be perceived by them as universal values. For the first time, some of these values were formulated by world religions, in particular Christianity, in the form of universal human values. In later times, the starting point for building a common value system was a specific person. New humanism is focused on the rights and freedoms of a specific person. The ideas of F.M. Dostoevsky that no progress is worth the tear of a tortured child alone are relevant again. Task No. 8. Read the text. Create and record a synopsis of a future scenario. Synopsis (Greek σύνοψις), from the Greek words: συν - with and όπτω - looking (synopsis) (review) - presentation in one general overview, in a condensed form, without detailed argumentation and without detailed theoretical reasoning, of one whole subject or one area knowledge. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ The future of humanity An important function of science and philosophy is predicting the future. Why does humanity need to know its future? In order to be able to make adjustments to certain social processes, goals, means and mechanisms of development, if they lead to the destruction of culture and civilization, degradation or death of a person. By drawing conclusions from the past, understanding the future and managing the present, a person is able to influence his history, his destiny. When studying the future, it is customary to single out certain time periods, or periods. The near future is a period of up to 5 - 10 years. For this period, programs and plans for the development of an enterprise, party, public organization, or state are usually built. Such forecasting at the level of general trends is generally a fairly simple task, provided that the influencing factors are understood. But detailed forecasting of events is much more difficult. Even if we are talking about a period of only one year. Distant future - historical horizon from approximately 10 to 50 years. Forecasting for such time periods is associated with great difficulties. Who in the early 80s. XX century could have assumed that the USSR, the empire of “developed socialism,” would collapse in ten years under the weight of its own problems, or that the world superpower of the United States, possessing the most modern army and an extensive network of intelligence services, in 2001 would find itself defenseless against Islamic terrorists who freely destroyed the World Trade Center and Pentagon? The far future is a period whose removal exceeds 50 -100 years. Predicting the distant future is the most difficult task. Here we have to take into account many conditions and factors, not all of which are currently known and understood. Such a forecast is necessarily accompanied by many “ifs”. For example, if humanity avoids a big war, if the environmental crisis is overcome, if the development of science and economics continues, if..., then in 50 - 70 years they will build a space station on the Moon and begin its exploration and colonization. To explore the future, science uses the entire arsenal of methods and means available to it. Among them, they are most often used. - forecasting; - expert assessments; - modeling; - historical analogy; - extrapolation. Let's try, taking into account scientific facts, to model the future of civilization and culture in the event that global problems are not overcome. Model 1. Armed conflict with the use of nuclear (chemical, bacteriological) weapons. If the power of a nuclear strike is high, according to scientists’ forecasts, this will cause severe destruction of the socio-economic infrastructure, radiation contamination of vast territories, the effect of “nuclear winter”, mutations of biological species, including humans. In this case, the surviving part of humanity will find themselves in incredibly difficult conditions. However, some experts believe that such a result of nuclear war is too optimistic. No one knows how the earth's crust or the planet's magnetic field will react to strong explosions, or whether the parameters of its orbit will change. Model 2. Deepening of the environmental crisis. Widespread poisoning of water, air and soil will greatly reduce the possibilities of agricultural production and give rise to a wave of mass diseases and deaths. In such conditions, only a very small group of people can survive, who will be able to use technological resources to purify water, air and food production. Simply put, these will be those who have enough space in special bunker shelters with a closed life support system. Gradually, the surface of the planet will turn into lifeless space. Plants and animals will die out. Nobody knows how long people can live in shelters, and whether they will be able to restore ecological balance on the planet. Model 3. A sharp increase in the planet's population. Demographic disproportion is getting worse. Overpopulated countries are emerging that are unable to provide an adequate economic and cultural standard of living for the population. Social problems are growing. Political instability and attempts to revise state borders are emerging. As a result, international tension and the likelihood of military conflicts are increasing. Model 4. Social and global problems are getting worse. Democratic political systems are unable to cope with them. The masses begin to demand a “new order”, a “strong hand”, “strong power”, “a tough leader”. On the wave of social instability, a dictator comes to power and establishes a totalitarian regime of governance (of a country, a group of countries, a planetary community). Some problems receive a real or visible solution, but the individual loses the rights and freedoms that he enjoyed in a democracy. By manipulating the consciousness and lives of people, the totalitarian system maintains stability until a social explosion generated by a wave of mass protest against the defenselessness of a person before the Government. Model 5. Highly developed information technology systems are beyond human control. The struggle between human civilization and machine civilization begins. Depending on its outcome, humanity either survives, but loses the achieved level of technological and cultural progress, or dies. Model 6. Global climate transformations, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the dynamics of tectonic plates radically change the geographical appearance of the planet. Old cultural and economic centers are either completely destroyed or fall into decay. The level of civilization and culture is falling sharply. The world's population is declining. However, in geographically and climatically favorable regions of the planet, life stabilizes and the development of civilization and culture gradually begins. The magnitude of historical regression and the speed of cultural and economic recovery depend on many natural and social factors. The models considered assume a greater or lesser crisis of historical progress. In fact, there are many more such crisis models. The corridor of historical progress of earthly civilization is not too wide. The most important condition for the further development of humanity is the successful solution of global problems. It largely depends on two necessary but insufficient conditions: - social integration of the Earth's population into a single planetary community with a single control center; - development of ethical principles and general cultural potential of the individual. Model 7. Social integration and ethical and cultural development of humanity lead to the creation of a planetary confederation of states with a single political center of control, based on the ideas of law, legality, humanism and culture. The combined resources of civilization are directed to solving global problems. If successful, the cultural and economic potential of humanity increases sharply. Large-scale exploration and colonization of space begins - first the planets of the solar system, then near and far galactic, and eventually intergalactic space. The united spiritualized humanity becomes one of the intelligent forces of the cosmic evolution of life and consciousness. Model 8. Technological Singularity - a proposed point in the future when the evolution of the human mind as a result of the development of nanotechnology, biotechnology and artificial intelligence will accelerate to such an extent that further changes will lead to the emergence of a mind with a much higher level of speed and a new quality of thinking. According to some authors who adhere to this theory, the technological singularity may occur around 2030. However, its onset does not mean the end of history; rather, on the contrary, the Prehistory of mankind will end, and the beginning of its real History will be laid.

PHILOSOPHY WORKBOOK

Tutorial

Novokuznetsk

Reviewer:

Candidate of Philosophy, Associate Professor,

Head of the Department of Sociology, Political Science and Law, SibGIU

E.S. Gershgorin

Candidate of Political Sciences, Associate Professor,

Head of the Department of Philosophy and Political Science KuzSPA

Yu.I. Golovichev

R 134 Workbook on philosophy: textbook. allowance / Comp. T.L. Gotyatova, S.V. Kovyrshina, L.B. Podgorny SibSIU. – Novokuznetsk, 2009. – 159 p.

Various types of tasks are presented: analysis of a philosophical text, compilation of a commentary on a source, work with philosophical concepts, compilation and reading of analytical tables, structural and logical diagrams, comparative analysis of philosophical concepts, points of view on the problems being studied.

Designed for 2nd year students of all specialties of full-time and part-time study.

Industrial University, 2009

1. Preface 4

philosophy workbook 6

3. Topic 1 Worldview essence of philosophy 16

4. Topic 2 The problem of self-determination of philosophy 53

5. Topic 3 Genesis of philosophy 61

6. Topic 4 Sections of philosophical knowledge. Peculiarities

formulation and solution of philosophical problems 117

7. Topic 5 Genre originality of philosophical discourse 127

8. Topic 6 Historical types of philosophizing 136

9. Topic 7 Philosophy as a way of life 146

PREFACE

Independent work of students to master any university discipline is an integral part of the educational process. However, the lack of educational and methodological materials to help effectively organize independent work seriously complicates its implementation.

The compilers of the “Philosophy Workbook” tried to fill this “gap” by offering full-time and part-time students educational, informational, didactic and testing materials aimed at achieving the goals of the students’ independent work program in philosophy.

The “Philosophy Workbook” is structured thematically in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard for Philosophy and the work program of the discipline. It is designed for the systematic, consistent work of students to master philosophy throughout the entire academic year and consists of two parts. The content of the first part (autumn semester) has the character of philosophical propaedeutics, preceding the problem-thematic formulation of questions in the main sections of philosophy in the spring semester.

When selecting material for the tasks in the workbook, the compilers of the manual proceeded from the fact that it is impossible to seriously engage in philosophical knowledge, the rich world of philosophical concepts, meanings and symbols only on the basis of a textbook, without directly turning to the works of thinkers of past eras and the present and their independent comprehension. At the same time, the needs and abilities of students to perform this kind of intellectual work are far from the same. In this regard, the main principle of compiling thematic tasks was their differentiation according to the degree of complexity. The workbook assignments were differentiated based on a taxonomy of learning objectives in the cognitive domain.

Each topic contains tasks of three conventionally designated levels of difficulty. A teacher who works directly with students will be able to offer each individual an individual set of questions and exercises.

It should be noted that tasks at the simplest level are aimed at memorizing and reproducing certain information. Here, students’ ability to recall, recognize, and ability to retell information proposed in tasks is assessed.

Tasks of a more complex, second level, are aimed at identifying students’ ability not just to reproduce information, but to convey it in the language of terms or in the form of an illustration, example, table, graph. The ability to interpret and explain is of particular importance. Interpretation (explanation) consists of establishing the meaning of something as a result of logical thinking based on given information:

a) capture the main idea;

b) separate the essential from the unimportant;

c) recognize valid conclusions as opposed to unfounded ones;

d) summarize the data and draw a conclusion.

In addition, tasks at this level provide the opportunity for extrapolation, the essence of which is to expand the meaning, determine the meaning or consequences of something based on the information provided.

The most difficult level of assignments is called creative, since it involves demonstrating how students can apply and use knowledge in new, problematic situations. Here the student’s ability to analyze the material, synthesize it into a single whole and make his own judgment regarding ideas, hypotheses, theories, works for a specific purpose is assessed.

For example, this could be an analysis of a particular approach, work, concept, teaching, or writing a small philosophical work - an essay. Successful completion of this type of task requires students to be able to understand and build a logical structure as a basis for making judgments. Judgment cannot remain intuitive, it must be reasoned. The statement that Plato's Republic is an outstanding philosophical work because it "had a profound influence on many generations of readers" cannot be considered a sufficient basis for inference. When analyzing statements, concepts, texts, it is necessary to describe in detail the basis used for each of the presented judgments.

Thus, the differentiated nature of tasks allows, on the one hand, to organize the process of independent work of students in a methodologically consistent and didactically correct manner, on the other hand, it can become the basis for a rating system for monitoring the quality of knowledge on the part of the teacher.

When selecting tasks for the textbook, the tables of I.N. Romanov and A.I. Kostyaev were used. (Philosophy. Research - texts - diagrams - tables - exercises - tests: textbook. - M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2003. -352 p0.

The compilers of the “Philosophy Workbook” will be grateful to teachers and students for constructive comments on the essence of the prepared material for students’ independent work. Proposals should be sent to the address: 654035, Novokuznetsk, Kemerovo region, 42 Kirova Ave., Department of Philosophy of SibGIU.

Correct answer: 4).

Line of reasoning: Consistently consider each answer option to the question posed.

In the first answer society should be defined as a circle of people based on interests, for example, a society of literature lovers, a sports society, but the concept of society is much broader - it is not only an association of people based on interests.

In the second definition society, a geographical or state principle of uniting people is highlighted, for example, we can talk about Russia and Russian society, France and French society, etc., which also does not exhaust its essence.

In the third option The answer assumes the principle of historicism in the definition of society, i.e. We are talking about primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal and other historical types of society.

Fourth answer the most capacious, because society is not only an association of people based on interests, not only a country, not only a state, but this entire set of forms of association of people.

Thus, of the answer options, you should look for the most capacious, generalized one, because other definitions of society reveal its private meanings.

There are tasks of higher complexity, the answers to which must be formulated independently. The success of their implementation largely depends on the ability to search for information, analyze and classify it.

Let's turn for example No. 2.

Worldview

Tasks:

A) The starting point for working with the table should be the information that experience can be internal (immanent) and selective. What is the difference? You need to answer this question at the very beginning of your work. The experience characteristics listed in the table will help you cope with this task.

b) Refer to the “Types of Experience” diagram and describe each type. It should be comprehensive, with examples from the history of philosophy that will show your deep knowledge of the problem. The result of the work should be an opinion about the type of your own interest in philosophy.

1.9 Give examples of political, economic and socio-cultural myths of the 21st century and determine their degree of influence on society.

1.10 Many philosophers ponder the mystery of wit. Here are some of their opinions:

Z. Freud: “A new joke acts like an event that arouses the widest interest; it spreads from person to person.”

K. Marx: “Humanity is cheerfully parting with its past.”

L. Chamfort: “We can’t even imagine how much intelligence it takes to not seem funny.”

I. Goethe: “The funniest desire is the desire to please everyone.”

F. Voltaire: “It is attempts at wit that kill wit.”

J. Locke: “Rocky is the most subtle way of exposing the shortcomings of others.”

Tasks:

a) You can continue this series by adding to it five independently found opinions of philosophers about wit.

b) Can philosophy itself be considered as wit? Pay attention to the signs, degrees and essence of wit presented in the diagram “Philosophy as Wit” by I.N. Romanov and A.I Kostyaev. Give an explanation of each of the features in a philosophical context, form a general idea of “philosophy as wit,” confirming and refuting your position with three historical and philosophical examples.

c) Completing the work, give a detailed description of the anthropological, ontological, epistemological meaning of wit.

Philosophy as wit

-Active connection with content

Reveals something secret or hidden

Game character

Change from surprise to enlightenment

A special kind of brevity

Contrast of sense and nonsense

The psychological basis of the experience is laughter

Trick

Joke (makes the text meaningful)

Witness (makes the text meaningful and useful)

-Display of the contradictions of being (Hegel)

Method of social criticism (Herzen)

An expression of the cynicism of human nature (Nietzsche)

A way to sublimate dissatisfaction

person (Freud)

Topic 2 THE PROBLEM OF SELF-DETERMINATION OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy as reflection

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2.6 After analyzing the table “Philosophy as a question of questions”, give 10 examples of philosophical questions, based on material from the history of philosophy, reflecting the specifics of antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern and contemporary times. Why did F. Engels call the main question of philosophy - “The question of the relationship of thinking to being”, F. Bacon simply asked the question - “Why”. What are the grounds for calling philosophical questions eternal?

There is not a single philosopher in the history of philosophy who would not try to define the act of philosophizing through his personal vision. Analyze each of these judgments and supplement them with three new ones, reflecting the specifics of the act of philosophizing.

J. Lacroix: “To philosophize means to universalize spiritual experience, translating it into terms accessible to everyone.”

M. Heidegger: “Philosophy is philosophizing... It requires that one look not away from it, but extract it from itself.”

H. Ortega – and – Gasset: “To philosophize is to seek the integrity of the world, to complete it in the Universe and to build an integrity for the part, where it could fit in and calm down.”

Aristotle: “If, therefore, they began to philosophize in order to get rid of ignorance, then obviously they began to strive for knowledge for the sake of understanding, and not for the sake of any benefit.”

2.8 Fill out the table and formulate your conclusion about the boundaries of philosophical knowledge:

Topic 3 GENESIS OF PHILOSOPHY

Read a fragment of text from the work “Philosophy of the Ancient World” by A.N. Chanyshev, highlight key concepts, explain the concepts of the origin of philosophy systematized by A.N. Chanyshev and determine the essence of the author’s concept. What is its specificity? Which of the proposed concepts do you consider most likely?

Paraphilosophy and its structure. Philosophy existed and exists not in a spiritual vacuum, but in the context of all forms of spirituality and on the basis of all forms of materiality. Let's call this context paraphilosophy. In paraphilosophy, two parts are distinguishable: worldview and scientific. One part of the spirituality surrounding philosophy is created mainly by the imagination (anatomically this corresponds to the right hemisphere of the brain). We emphasize that mainly because in art, to one degree or another, there are moments of rationality.

And the other part is mainly the mind (anatomically this corresponds to the left hemisphere of the brain).

Therefore, in our scheme, to the right of philosophy will be art, mythology and religion, or, if we take these forms of spirituality in their ideological essence, the artistic-mythological-religious ideological complex, and to the left - science. Between philosophy and the named forms of spirituality there is, as it were, a border zone in which on the right, on the side of philosophy, there is the philosophy of art, the philosophy of mythology and the philosophy of religion, that is, the understanding and interpretation of art, mythology and religion from the standpoint of philosophy, and on the side of religion - theoretical theology , that is, a system of protecting religion from philosophical free-thinking, allegedly by means of philosophy itself: reasoning and justification, however, while preserving and for the sake of preserving religious dogma, which should be taken on faith.

On the left, in the border zone, there will be the philosophy of science on the philosophy side, and the amateur philosophizing of scientific specialists on the science side. Among the sciences we will find art history, mythological studies, religious studies, scientific studies and even philosophical studies. Philosophy and philosophical studies are not the same thing. Philosophers, like poets, are born and become philosophers.

These two parts of paraphilosophy are antagonistic to each other.

The sciences support philosophy as a second-level worldview. And as soon as philosophy loses connection with the sciences, it slides down to the first level, actually ceasing to be philosophy, that is, a systemically rationalized worldview.

However, the role of science and its influence on philosophy is not only favorable. The complete victory of science over ideological paraphilosophy deprives philosophy of its ideological character. Philosophy is reduced to the methodology of science and becomes a kind of handmaiden of science.

Worldview paraphilosophy supports its ideological status in philosophy, nourishes philosophy with the juices of life, primarily social. But it also draws philosophy from the second level to the first, deprives it of systematicity and rationalization, turns it into philosophical irrationalism at best, and at worst completely dissolves it in art, mythology, and religion.

In both cases, philosophy becomes one-sided, twisted in one direction or another.

In the objective history of philosophy there are many examples of such one-sided, although in their own way very interesting and impressive philosophy. But the objective history of philosophy gives us examples of a complete and harmonious philosophy - a philosophy in which the systemically rationalized form and ideological content are in a state of balance and proportionality.

Now it is appropriate to pose the question of what of the spiritual environment of philosophy existed before philosophy and what role it played in its emergence.

Where did philosophy come from?

On this score, there are two extreme concepts and three middle ones.

According to the first extreme concept, philosophy did not arise from anything. It is so qualitatively different from the forms of spiritual culture that preceded it that, in relation to it, the very question “from what?” meaningless. Philosophy thus arose as if out of nothing. The second, opposite, concept says that philosophy has always existed when there was a “reasonable man.”

Both of these extreme concepts, in our opinion, are incorrect. It is no coincidence that middle concepts prevail among philosophers. Philosophy was not always there. It arose. There was a time when there was no philosophy, but there was something analogous to it, so it arose not from nothing, but from “something.”

But different philosophers understand this “something” differently. And here, too, there are already moderate extremes. Some argue that philosophy arose from mythology and only from mythology or even religion, while others think that philosophy arose from knowledge and only from knowledge, from the beginnings of the sciences. Between these two moderate extremes are placed those concepts of the genesis of philosophy that speak of two principles of philosophy: mythological and scientific.

But here too there is some difference of opinion. Some fundamentally divide philosophy into philosophical idealism and philosophical materialism, so much so that for them the very genesis of philosophy is bifurcated: philosophy arose not as such, but separately as materialism and idealism. Philosophical idealism was a continuation of the line of faith. Philosophical materialism was a continuation of the line of knowledge. We call the first moderate concept mythogenic. The second of the moderate ones is epistemogenic. The third is the dualistic epistemogenic-mythogenic concept of the genesis of philosophy.

Our understanding. We contrast all these concepts of the genesis of philosophy with our monistic epistemogenic-mythogenic concept of the genesis of philosophy.

Basically, almost everyone agrees that philosophy was preceded by art, mythology, and religion. There was also a set of norms of behavior, both reasonable and unreasonable, that is, spontaneous morality. But since morality itself is closed on relationships between people, that is, it is not a worldview, then above we excluded it from the consideration of types of worldview, since there is no worldview where there is no main issue of worldview - the question of the relationship between man (people) and the universe. However, morality can be derived from one or another solution to the basic question of worldview. Then it acquires an ideological aspect.

The problem of philosophical science. As for science, many deny the possibility of the existence of science before philosophy, philosophical science. According to some, science arose together with philosophy, according to others - after philosophy, but still in ancient times, according to others - only in modern times, so it turns out that Archimedes and Euclid are not scientists, not representatives of ancient science.

Those who admit the existence of science in ancient times sometimes reduce science to philosophy, limiting themselves to analyzing the opinions of philosophers about science, ignoring this science itself.

We will not go into the difficult question of what is meant by science. Let's not argue about words. In order not to get bogged down in disputes, we will limit ourselves to posing the question - did reason, mind, intellect, Indian manas, Greek logos exist and act before philosophy? For those who doubt this, we will offer an elementary problem from an ancient Egyptian mathematical papyrus of the 2nd millennium BC. to divide seven loaves into eight equal parts with a minimum number of cuts. And we assert that no myths will help solve this and similar simple mathematical problems. Because this requires intelligence.

And all life support is the fruit of intelligence. All technical wisdom, all that is artificial, all that is created by man, all “technetos” is the result of the activity of consideration.

The birth of a person. Leaving aside the problem of the anatomical formation of man, we will dwell only on the problem of separating man from nature, from the animal world. And here one clarification is necessary. In our opinion, what is purely human is not so much a person’s change in his environment as his completion of himself for the sake of this change. Beavers chew trees with their natural teeth. Man equips himself with artificial tools of labor and war created by himself.

Dualism of primitive consciousness. They often talk about syncretism, that is, about the indivisibility of primitive consciousness in general. This is a deep mistake. If there was a lack of differentiation, it was within the artistic-mythological-religious worldview complex (HMRMK). But in general, the indivisibility of primitive consciousness is apparent. We affirm that primitive consciousness is dualistic: there has long been a deep split in it between real knowledge - the fruit of the activity of practical reason (considerations) and KMRMK - the fruit of the worldview imagination.

The origin of worldview. The genesis of philosophy was preceded by the genesis of the mythological worldview. The reason for this genesis is clear to us; Having begun to complete himself and through this completion to change the environment, man began to stand out from nature, which was, if expressed in theological language, the true “original sin” of man, his self-exile from the “thingless” paradise of animal self-sufficient existence into the hell of “materialism” and “ unnecessary actions” (animals do not do unnecessary things, which is why they are more “sapiens” than humans), into the hell of destruction of nature and self-prosthetics up to their robotization. One way or another, when man began to complete himself and stand out from the animal world, a new relationship arose in the universe - a practical split between IT (the universe) and WE (people). This practical split had its own spiritual aspect in the form of a spontaneously arising fundamental question of worldview, the question of the relationship between IT and WE. A person could answer this question then only to the best of his weak capabilities.

Standing out from nature, man compensated for this separation, this departure from the animal paradise, by humanizing nature in his imagination, that is, anthropomorphizing and sociomorphizing it. Anthropomorphism is the endowment of natural and social phenomena with qualities and even the external appearance of a person (which is preceded by zoomorphism). Anthropomorphism can be complete and explicit and incomplete and implicit. But such a human quality as conscious purposefulness is indispensable.

"Origin" of the supernatural world. Since everything human is deeply alien to the universe, which is indifferent to us, the transfer (metaphor) of the traits of man and tribal society onto it inevitably gave rise to a supernatural, supernatural world of mythological pseudo-existence in human consciousness. In the mythologies of all peoples, there were various ideological myths about the origin of the universe and man, that is, cosmogonic and anthropogonic myths.

Real knowledge. No myths can replace real knowledge, without which no tribe, no people would survive. Real knowledge often existed in the shell of myths, magical actions and spells. For example, sowing was always accompanied by magical actions. Of course, these actions did not replace real ones.

Knowledge, of course, can serve religion. Chronology calculates the dates of religious holidays. Mathematics helps to build temples and rebuild altars (for example, in India, changing the geometric shape of the altar was possible only if its area was preserved). Because one of the rather complex mathematical problems was called in Ancient Egypt the problem of the god Ra, it did not turn into a piece of mythology. Some numbers were identified with supernatural beings. The apocalyptic number 666 is well known.

Magic and religion. We said that the mythological part of religion is essentially no different from pure mythology. The difference is functional: a mythological worldview is religious when it serves a religious cult. However, this cult can acquire independent power, independent of the will of the gods. Then the religious ritual turns into a magical one.

Indeed, in religion, the result of a religious action (usually a sacrifice) and a request (prayer) is mediated by the free will of one or another god, who can either accept or not accept the sacrifice, whereas in magic the spell and act are forced.

Magic and science. At first glance, magic is similar to science. In fact, magic presupposes the presence in the world of necessary connections, cause-and-effect relationships. Magic has its own technique. The shaman uses special devices. However, the similarity of magic to science is imaginary. Magic comes from the idea that the imitation of a process and the desired process itself are connected, so that by simulating a process, one can cause this process itself (for example, splashing water can cause rain), that, further, influencing the rejected part of an object can affect the object (burning cut off hair, cause harm to its former owner), influencing the image of a person, cause harm to the person himself (therefore, you should not take photographs, give your photographs as a gift, and even more so allow your photographs to be printed in newspapers and magazines). We are talking about black (malicious) magic here. But there is also white (beneficial) magic, including healing, which they are now trying to supplement, or even replace, scientific medicine.

Philosophy. So, the artistic-mythological-religious worldview complex, on the one hand, and real knowledge and skills, on the other, constituted philosophy. In the broadest sense of the word, prophilosophy is a combination of developed mythology (the fruit of the imagination) and the rudiments necessary for the life support of knowledge (the fruit of the activity of reason).

Such prophilosophy is, in its essence, pre-philosophical paraphilosophy—paraphilosophy without philosophy. Of course, we can talk about paraphilosophy only when philosophy has been formed. Then philosophy is the core. And paraphilosophy is a shell. Then philosophy is the Sun. And paraphilosophy is the solar corona.

But if there is no core, then paraphilosophy is just a nebula in which a star has yet to be born.

In a narrower sense of the word, prophilosophy is that which, both in mythology and in the beginnings of the sciences, directly served the genesis of philosophy. In mythology, this is a spontaneous formulation of ideological, big questions. At the very least, setting up big questions. In the beginnings of the sciences, it is not so much the knowledge itself as the development of thinking, the scientific spirit itself and the scientific method, the intellect.

Further, in the complex of philosophy, the interaction of its ideological and proto-scientific parts begins. The fruit of this interaction is transitional forms between mythology and philosophy. So, in an even narrower sense of the word, prophilosophy is precisely these transitional forms between the mythological and philosophical worldview.

In the narrowest sense of the word, prophilosophy is the contradiction between a worldview based on emotional and irrational imagination and the beginnings of scientific sober thinking, between fantasizing myth-making and the emerging scientific method and critical thinking. These are the spiritual premises of philosophy.

Chanyshev A.N. Philosophy of the Ancient World: Textbook. for universities / A.N. Chanyshev. – M.: Higher. school, 2001. – P. 3 – 33.

Using the table below “The East-West Problem in the Context of Philosophy”, compare the specific features of the Eastern and Western traditions of philosophizing and provide historical and philosophical material confirming the existence of these differences.

PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS

In the history of philosophy, there are many symbols created by great philosophers: “The Cave” by Plato, “The Owl of Minerva” by Hegel, “Sophia” by Vl. Solovyova. Reveal the meaning of these allegories by indicating which features present in the table “The Role of Symbols in Philosophy” are the main ones for these symbols?

The role of symbol in philosophy

Reflecting on the characteristics of philosophical culture, philosophers characterized it in different ways. According to J. Locke, this is analyticity, systematicity, experimentation; according to C. Montesquieu - sociality embodied in natural laws; according to B. Franklin - practicality; K. Marx – classism; according to Nietzsche - smart cynicism.

Questions

a) Which of the listed characteristics of philosophical culture, in your opinion, most fully reveal its specificity?

Philosophy workbook

What is philosophy?........................................................ .......................2
Ancient Eastern philosophy……………………………...……...7
Ancient philosophy……………………………..……….……9
Medieval philosophy……………………………………….19
Philosophy of the Renaissance……………………………21
European philosophy of the 17th century……………………………...22
European philosophy of the 18th century……………………………..25
From Hegel’s philosophy to dialectical materialism……...30
European philosophy of the 19th – early 20th centuries………….……..33
Postmodernism……………………………………………………36
Russian philosophy……………………………………………………..…40
Ontology……………….…………………………………………43
Philosophical anthropology……………………………………...45
Philosophy of society and history…………………………….…...47
Philosophy of science…………………………………………………………….……55

Lecture 1. Subject and functions of philosophy.

Specificity of philosophical knowledge.
1. Object, subject and functions of philosophy.
2. Relationships between forms of social consciousness.
3. Specificity of philosophical knowledge.

The time of human life is a moment; its essence is eternal flow;
the feeling is vague; the structure of the whole body is perishable;
the soul is unstable; fate is mysterious; fame is unreliable.
In a word, everything related to the body is like a stream,
relating to the soul - dreams and smoke.
Life is a struggle and a journey through a foreign land;
posthumous glory - oblivion.
But what can lead to the path?
Nothing but philosophy...
Marcus Aurelius
The power of philosophy: to heal souls, weed out empty worries,
relieve passions, drive away fears.
Cicero

1. Object, subject and functions of philosophy.

The word “philosophy” comes from Ancient Greece and is about 2600 years old. Pythagoras was a great mathematician and thinker of his time. His fellow citizens reverently called him “wise” (in Greek sophos). Pythagoras himself did not agree with such a nickname and did not want to be called a sage; for this he respected wisdom too much and believed that no one could claim to have already become wise. But, nevertheless, he agreed to be a friend (or lover, in Greek philos) of wisdom - that is, a philosopher. So, a philosopher is a person who loves wisdom, but not one who possesses it.
Philosophy is a form of social consciousness aimed at developing a holistic view of the world and man’s place in it.
Philosophy is the doctrine of the general principles of existence and knowledge, of man’s relationship to the world, his place and role in this world.
Philosophy is the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society, and thinking.
The object of philosophy is the world as a single whole, which gives a general view of the world.
The subject of philosophy is the laws, forms and properties of being that operate in all areas of the material and spiritual world.
To determine the functions of philosophy means to identify their place and role in social life, in theoretical and practical activity.
Worldview: development of a system of views on the world and man’s place in it, on man’s attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, and value orientations determined by these views.
Methodological: - development of general methodological principles of research in the field of all special sciences; - development of a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing activities.
Epistemological: orienting a person’s cognitive attitude toward revealing the essence of the world and man, on the one hand, equips people with knowledge about the world, on the other, determines the general logic of a person’s cognitive attitude to reality.
Axiological: a value-based approach to the phenomena of the objective world, social existence and human spiritual life.
Integrating: synthesizing knowledge obtained by particular sciences in order to obtain more general knowledge.

2. Relationships between forms of social consciousness.

3. Specificity of philosophical knowledge.

Sciences are sometimes called private, because each explores only some aspect of the real world in some more or less private relationships. Even mathematics sees the world only in quantitative characteristics, leaving qualitative diversity aside. In addition, sciences are constantly fragmenting, they cover an ever narrower range of problems. However, there is a growing need for a unified view of the world and the laws of its development; such a holistic view has always been provided by philosophy (having climbed to the top of a mountain, it is difficult to consider individual details of what is below, but the whole picture is visible). The picture of the world offered by philosophy is not static, it develops, deepens, and enriches.

Structure of philosophical knowledge
Ontology (“ontos” – being) is the doctrine of being.
Methodology is the study of method.
Epistemology (gnosis – knowledge) – the study of knowledge.
Logic (formal, dialectical, social).
Philosophy of nature is the study of nature.
Social philosophy is the study of society.
Philosophical anthropology (“anthropos” - man) is the study of man.
Aesthetics (from “sensual”) is the study of beauty.
Ethics (from “moral”) is the doctrine of morality.
The history of philosophy is the science of the development of philosophical knowledge.
Philosophy of science is a section of philosophy that includes studies of the structure of scientific knowledge, means and methods of scientific knowledge, methods of substantiation and development of knowledge.
Philosophy of technology is a section of philosophy that interprets the phenomenon of technology in the modern world.
Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy associated with the interpretation of the historical process and historical knowledge.
Philosophy of politics - explores general issues of the political sphere.
Philosophy of Law – studies jurisprudence and government.
Philosophy of culture explores the essence and meaning of culture.
Philosophy of religion is philosophical reasoning about God and religion.
Axiology (axia - value) – explores the essence and nature of values, the structure of the value world, i.e. connections of various values among themselves, with social and cultural factors, with the structure of personality.
Distinctive features of philosophy:
Theoretical scale - a high level of theoretical generalizations and abstractions, synthesis of all kinds of knowledge, formulation of the most general patterns and laws.
Structural complexity (see above).
Worldview orientation – worldview in its universal characteristics.
Methodological orientation - the general worldview and theoretical-cognitive foundations of science are studied and developed in the field of philosophy and are specified, in particular, in philosophical methodology, which is a system of universal regulatory principles, norms, and regulations that guide cognitive activity.
Axiological orientation - assessment of knowledge about objects, phenomena and properties of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values - social, ideological, moral ideals.
Heuristic orientation is the formation of hypotheses about general principles, development trends, as well as primary hypotheses about the nature of specific phenomena that have not yet been worked out by special scientific methods.
Social orientation – analysis of society, the reasons for its emergence, evolution, driving forces.
Humanistic orientation – humanistic values, ideals.
Cultural significance is an element of the spiritual life of society, an integration form of human experience.

The Basic Question of Philosophy

Lecture 2. Eastern philosophy.

1. General characteristics of the Ancient East.
2. Philosophy of Ancient India.
3. Philosophy of Ancient China.

1. General characteristics of the Ancient East.
The philosophical development of the Ancient East had characteristic features that were rooted in the specifics of the East as a type of culture. The concept of the Ancient East has certain boundaries - both temporal and spatial. This region is usually referred to

Its chronos is the third millennium BC. - the beginning of an era.
Europe has always perceived the East and its culture as something mysterious, sought to understand it and stopped short of its incomprehensibility. In the dichotomy “East - West”, which has always occupied the European consciousness, the East was most often perceived as the opposite of European culture, and in the context of this, the mysticism of the East was opposed to European rationalism, slavery - to freedom, contemplation - to creative action, social stagnation - to dynamics.
Eastern civilization itself arose much earlier than European civilization and was historically the first stage in the civilizational evolution of mankind. Its emergence and development were to a much greater extent determined by the geographical factor and depended on it in the future. Most ancient Eastern societies were slave-owning despotisms, although this was a different type of slavery than in the ancient world. It is characterized by the absolute power of the king, sanctified by religion, not only over the land, but also over his subjects. The East did not know personal freedom to the extent that it existed in Europe.
A characteristic feature of social relations was paternalism, which presupposed the complete power of a man over a woman, a father over his children, and a ruler over his subjects. Hence the traditional cult of personality for the East, traditionalism in general is a feature of the East. It manifests itself, among other things, in the extremely stagnant nature of social development, as well as in the orientation towards the past as the norm and ideal of such development.
In the social structure of Eastern societies, an exceptional role belonged to the priesthood, which concentrated in its hands not only the practice of worship, but also spiritual life in a broad sense, including science and philosophy where they existed. The monopoly of the priesthood in spiritual life was one of the reasons for the extremely close intertwining of philosophy and religion, the inconsistent and incomplete separation of philosophy from mythology. This was one of the reasons that in most Eastern countries philosophy never separated from the forms of worldview that preceded it. Another reason was interruptions in the socio-political development of eastern civilizations, their death due to external factors (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Israel). This circumstance gives grounds to characterize the spiritual development and ideological searches of most regions of the East as pre-philosophy. Meanwhile, in two countries - India and China, whose social development did not know such sharp interruptions, pre-philosophy, gradually developing, acquired philosophical norms. Mature and interesting systems developed there, and important problems of a natural-philosophical, epistemological and ethical nature were posed. That is why we will look at the philosophy of Ancient India and Ancient China.

2. Philosophy of Ancient India.
Ancient Indian philosophy is one of the most profound and original phenomena of human culture. Having developed in the depths of the civilization of Ancient India, its philosophy expressed the deep essential features of this civilization and had a colossal impact on its further spiritual development. However, its role and significance go far beyond the boundaries of the Indian area itself.
The history of ancient Indian philosophy is divided into three stages. The first stage is Vedic (6-5 centuries BC), the second is post-Vedic (5-3 centuries BC), the last stage is the period of sutras (3 centuries BC - 4 centuries . AD). Each of the periods received its name from the dominant texts (Vedas, sutras), which constituted the sources of philosophical searches. At the same time, these periods differ in the degree of maturity of the ideas and principles of philosophy itself.
In a broad sense, Vedic literature is a collection of texts (the Vedas, as well as later commentaries on them - the Brahmanas and Aranyakas), which is a poetic collection of hymns dedicated to the ancient Indian gods. Before 200 BC a book was created that completed the cycle of Vedic literature and met the new intellectual and social needs of society - the Upanishads, which are a set of texts of a philosophical nature. In Sanskrit, “sutras” literally mean threads, and in philosophical meaning they mean “rules.” Sutras were texts that expounded the most important philosophical ideas. Their task was to give a clear, clear and, as concise as possible, idea of the essence and teaching of the most important philosophical schools and movements.
Over time, the Indian tradition divided all the thinkers who in one way or another derived their teaching from the Upanishads into several directions. Six of them belong to orthodox schools (astika): Mimamsa, Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Yoga. Four more schools were called heterodox (nastika): Lokayata, Charvaka, Jainism, Buddhism.

3. Philosophy of Ancient China.
China is the second, along with India, great cultural center of the East, whose spiritual development has gone beyond the boundaries of mythological consciousness and acquired mature philosophical forms. The philosophical development of China is unique, as is the Chinese civilization itself, which was in a state of isolation and self-isolation for thousands of years. China became the birthplace of very original socio-philosophical doctrines. Philosophers lived on the soil of this country, whose names became symbols of wisdom not only on a narrow national, but also on a global scale. The primacy among them belongs to Confucius and Lao Tzu. The philosophical tradition of China is based on numerous treatises, the very study and commentary of which has become the professional occupation of many generations of educated people. The only teaching that came to China from outside and assimilated into Chinese culture is Buddhism. But on Chinese soil, Buddhism acquired a very specific appearance, far from Indian, and at the same time not influencing traditional Chinese doctrines.
The origins of Chinese philosophical thought go back to the so-called “mythological period,” during which the most important features and characteristics of the Chinese worldview were laid down. Without understanding them, it is hardly possible to understand the ways and principles of the further development of philosophy itself. Among such important features we note the cult of Heaven, traditionalism, dualism of worldview, paternalism. With all their diversity, these features turn out to be organically fused and interdependent, and the “cementing” principle is the traditionalism of the life and thinking of the Chinese.
Philosophical schools of China:

Lecture 2. Ancient philosophy.

Time can do nothing to the great thoughts that

just as fresh now as they were the first time,
many centuries ago, originated in the minds of their authors.
What was once thought up and said is now
it is also vividly told to us on the printed page.
S. Smiles

Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, covering the period from the 7th century. BC. and until 529 AD, when Emperor Justinian closed the philosophical schools in Athens. Ancient philosophy arose in the Greek city-states (trade and craft city-states) of Asia Minor, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea region and Crimea, Greece proper, the Hellenistic states of Asia and Africa, and the Roman Empire. Ancient philosophy made an exceptional contribution to the development of world civilization. It was here that European culture and civilization originated, here are the origins of Western philosophy, almost all of its subsequent schools, ideas and ideas.

Characteristics of some views of philosophers and facts of their lives.
Pre-classical period.
Thales is one of the seven ancient Greek sages. There is a legend: one day fishermen caught a golden tripod instead of a fish. To avoid a fight, they turned to the Delphic oracle for advice. The answer was: “Give to the one who is first in wisdom.” The tripod was sent to Thales. The Milesian thinker, as modest as he was wise, sent it to another thinker, who sent it to a third. Finally, the tripod was again in Mileete with Thales.
The best evidence to date Thales is that he predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC.
Each of the philosophers became famous for at least one particularly wise statement. What belongs to Thales sounds: water is the best, i.e. everything comes from water. The fundamental principle of all things, according to Thales, is water. When it evaporates, air is formed, when changes occur in the opposite direction - earth and even stone. The meaning and connection of the various qualitative states of the diverse world is what comes to the fore.
Anaximander, the author of perhaps the first philosophical work, “On Nature,” became Thales’ student. He argued that all things originated from a single primary substance, he called it “apeiron” - something indefinite, but eternal and infinite, uncreated and indestructible. For the first time, Anaximander expressed the idea of evolution, believing that man, like other living beings, descended from fish.
Anaximenes is the last major representative of the Milesian school. Of all the material principles, he chose the most neutral - air. Even his soul is made of air. Air, when liquefied, turns into fire, and when condensed, it becomes water and earth. The stars are also made of fire. We do not feel their warmth, because... they are very far from us.
One of the continuers of the traditions of this school was Heraclitus from Ephesus, who in ancient times received the nickname Dark, because. in his statements was not clear to everyone, although he was famous for his teaching, according to which everything in the world is in a state of constant change. At the heart of his world is fire. “This cosmos, one and the same for everything that exists, was not created by any god or man, but it always was, is and will be an eternally living fire, igniting in measures and extinguishing in measures.” The largest group of extant passages from Heraclitus deals with contradictions. They are the source of change and development. “If struggle were to disappear from the face of the earth, all things would perish.” “On him who enters the same river, more and more waters flow.” Another side of Heraclitus’s teaching is that he constantly emphasizes the relativity of judgments and assessments. The idea of relativity is an important aspect of dialectics. “The wisest of men will seem like a monkey compared to God.” “Donkeys prefer straw to gold.”
Pythagoras went in a direction largely opposite to the traditions of the Milesian school. According to many scientists, intellectually he is one of the most significant people who ever lived on earth. A native of the island of Samos, persecuted by enemies, he ended up in Crotona, a Greek city in southern Italy, where he founded a specific community - a political union, a religious brotherhood, a philosophical and scientific school at the same time.
In the teachings of Pythagoras, two parts are clearly distinguished - moral and religious-mystical and scientific-philosophical, an example of which is the famous theorem. It was the Pythagoreans who first applied the conclusions of mathematics to other areas of knowledge. Mathematics permeates the entire teaching of Pythagoras: “All things are numbers.”
The philosopher Xenophanes became famous for his reasoning regarding the gods. “Mortals think that gods are born, have clothes, a voice and an image like them... But if bulls, horses, lions had hands and could draw, then horses would create gods similar to horses, and bulls - similar to bulls... The Ethiopians say that their gods are snub-nosed and black; the Thracians represent their gods as red-haired and blue-eyed.” This is one of the most important arguments against religion, which will be repeated many times later. If we remember what an inhibitory role religion played at the moment of the formation of philosophical knowledge, then the significance of Xenophanes’ free-thinking for the thinking Greek will become clear.
The next stage in the development of philosophy is the Eleatic, or Eleatic school. The founder of the school, Parmenides, a native of Elea in Southern Italy, denotes two possible paths of knowledge. One (based on reason) gives the truth, the other (based on feelings) is nothing more than the opinion of the crowd. Parmenides practically nullifies the significance of evidence given by the senses: truly existing is what is thought, as opposed to what is perceived.
Zeno formulated the so-called aporia (from Greek: a hopeless situation, an intractable problem). Achilles and the Tortoise: The fastest of men will never be able to catch up with one of the slowest creatures if it has set off first. Achilles, in order to catch up with the tortoise, must first travel the distance from his place to where the tortoise was originally located. But before he covers this distance, the turtle will move forward a certain distance, and this situation will be repeated again and again ad infinitum. The purely speculative construction considered is in apparent contradiction with experience. But Zeno is not talking about reality, not about the existence of movement, but about the possibility of comprehending it with the mind. It reveals the internal inconsistency of the movement and the inconsistency of the concepts that reflect it.

Classic period.

Leucippus and Democritus are difficult to separate. Leucippus from Miletus - teacher of Democritus. So little is known about him that at a later time there were people, including philosophers, who denied the existence of Leucippus. Democritus is a more specific figure, he is from Abdera, a city in northern Greece. Traveled a lot, was in Egypt, Persia. According to many, Democritus surpassed his predecessors and contemporaries in his wealth of knowledge, sharpness and logical correctness of thinking.
According to legend, Democritus, having received an inheritance, squandered it on trips to different countries, where he hoped to gain additional knowledge. For this he was even put on trial (the Greeks severely condemned extravagance), but was acquitted after reading his book “The Great World-Building” before the judges. The list of his works consists of 60 titles, but none of them have reached us.
Democritus taught that everything consists of atoms, physically indivisible. There is empty space between them. Atoms have always been and will be in motion; There are countless of them, as well as their varieties. They differ from each other in size, weight and shape. Even the soul is made of atoms, and thinking is a physical process. Colliding in vortex motion, atoms form the visible world in its multi-quality, all things, all bodies. Does this happen by chance? No, everything develops in accordance with natural laws. Leucippus already stated: “Not a single thing arises without a cause, but everything arises on some basis and due to necessity.” And Democritus directly denied that anything could happen by chance: people invented the image of chance in order to use it as an excuse to hide their foolishness.
The Athenians greedily absorbed philosophical culture, because philosophy turned out to be practically significant. It was this circumstance that predetermined the appearance of a large number of philosophers in Athens, among whom those who called themselves sophists stood out. In the original understanding of the word, a sophist is a sage who imparts knowledge, a teacher who earns his livelihood by teaching. They were useful, practically significant, they taught how to win over to one’s side in a dispute, because the plaintiff and the defendant, the accuser and the accused spoke in court, proving their case themselves. And too much depended not only on WHAT was said, but also HOW it was said.
Protagoras taught how to argue, but this was hardly the main thing for him. In the foreground he has the truth and the possibility of knowing it. He argued: “Man is the measure of all things.” Every thing, every phenomenon is assessed as something beautiful or ugly, useful or harmful by man, based on his ideas about the world and human needs. If a snake could judge the same thing, wouldn't that assessment change?
According to legend, when someone asked the Delphic oracle who was the wisest on earth, he answered: “Socrates.” When he found out about this, he went on a journey, asking different people what they knew. He realized that they thought they knew something when in fact they didn't. Therefore, Socrates came to the conclusion that he is truly the wisest man on earth, because he knows that he knows nothing, and everyone else mistakenly believes that they know something. “I know that I don’t know anything, but there are people who don’t know that either.”
But Socrates is remembered less for what he said than for how he taught. His famous Socratic method (maieutics) consisted of asking questions and finding out the point of view of his opponents. By constantly asking, Socrates could find weaknesses in other people's ideas. His method of teaching, consisting of questions, is considered the earliest form of dialectic: reasoning about a subject, constantly moving between one point of view and an opposing opinion. This way you can find out which idea is better. Socrates drew attention to the importance of logic and dialectics, as well as the correctness of terms. He was also a moral example and died for his ideas. “Whoever is not struck by a word cannot be struck by a stick.”
Plato (427 - 347 BC) is the greatest philosopher of antiquity, who had a tremendous influence on European thought. He continued the course taken by Socrates to “see the one in many.” The topics that interested Plato were wide and varied. He presented his ideas in wonderful works, which he called dialogues. The main character in them is most often Socrates, arguing with one of his students, after whom the work is named. Under the name of Plato, 23 genuine and 11 dubious dialogues, the speech “Apology of Socrates,” and 13 letters have reached us. His main dialogues are: Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus, Parmenides, Philebus, Republic, Timaeus, Critias.
Plato called for an eternal search for truth, and therefore did not strive to create any frozen system. The core of Plato's teaching is considered to be the theory of ideas. Plato believed that true reality is possessed not by individual things in the world around us, mortal and impermanent, but by immortal eidos, intelligible, non-spatial and timeless entities. Plato's ideas can be understood as those patterns, standards by which all nature was created. These are the forms that organize the ordinary reality we are familiar with. Ideas are the causes, the source of all existence of things, their properties and relationships. Moreover, these are ideals, goals to which everything that exists should strive. Ideas are always true, and errors are a consequence of the physical world, or the world of becoming.
Plato believes in the immortality of the soul, therefore his epistemology is associated with the theory of recollection. The task of a wise teacher is to properly guide the soul of the student so that it remembers everything that it once knew, gaining in the world of ideas.
The greatest good for Plato was justice. Therefore, in the peculiar “war communism” of Sparta, Plato saw the socio-political embodiment of justice. For Plato, unjust government systems were timocracy (the power of the ambitious), oligarchy (the power of the rich), tyranny and democracy, accompanied by arbitrariness and anarchy. According to Plato, in accordance with the three types of souls (reasonable, affective and lustful), the state should have three classes of free citizens: rulers (philosophers), warriors (guards), businessmen (artisans and farmers).
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) is called Stagirite after his birthplace (the city of Stagira). Aristotle is rightfully considered the systematizer of previous Greek philosophy. The works of Aristotle that have come down to us are usually divided as follows: books on logic - “Organon” (“Categories”, “Hermeneutics”, etc.); natural science essays (“Physics”, “On the Soul”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “Meteorology”); works on metaphysics (14 books); ethical works (“Nicomachean Ethics”, “Eudemic Ethics”, “Great Ethics”, “Politics”, “Athenian Polity”); books on aesthetics (“Rhetoric”, “Poetics”).
“Whoever wants to know correctly must first doubt correctly.” He criticized Plato's theory of ideas. Aristotle did not reject the existence of ideas, but he believed that the general is manifested in the individual. Concrete things have true reality, and ideas as “pure forms of things” are found in the things themselves, and not outside them. Each individual thing has an idea - a “substance” and a substrate. If we modernize Aristotle's thoughts somewhat, we can say that every thing has “form” and “content”. The form of a thing is the essence of the thing. For example, a copper ball. The main thing here is the “form” - the ball, and the “content, or “matter” (according to Aristotle) from which the ball consists is copper.
Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not believe in the immortality of the soul. The soul, in his opinion, is one of the parts of the body and dies with it. Ethics in Aristotle, like in Plato, is closely related to politics. The state must educate citizens in the spirit of virtue. “Man is a social animal. When defining ethical virtues, Aristotle adhered to the concept of the “golden mean” between false extremes: courage is the mean between cowardice and reckless rage; moderation - between voluptuousness and indifference; generosity - between stinginess and extravagance. Moderation is the road to happiness.
What Aristotle did in the field of logic is difficult to overestimate. Aristotle was the first to study not only the content of thinking, but also its form (formal logic). Aristotle was the first to classify the sciences, and he called philosophy the “dominant” of them. He actually developed the conceptual apparatus that philosophy still uses today. Aristotle created a differentiated system of knowledge and the very style of scientific thinking.

Late classic.

Hellenism is a complex complex of cultural, political and philosophical traditions that emerged after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great and the formation of states ruled by Alexander’s generals on its ruins. These states and the culture formed in them are called Hellenistic. Hellenism, of course, is not something holistic.
The Stoics emphasized the moral and practical orientation of philosophy, which should teach a person to live correctly and with dignity. Everything in the world is strictly determined, God is also subject to necessity, or rather, he is necessity, hence the extreme fatalism of the Stoics (belief in the inevitability of fate, predestination). We cannot master external events, but we can master ourselves, and this means giving up those benefits the achievement of which does not depend on a person, i.e. give up external goods and strive for internal goods. Believing that only virtue is the only condition for happiness, the Stoics identified happiness and virtue, recognizing it as the highest and only good.
Epicureanism, unlike Stoicism, is hedonistic (from the Greek “hedone” - pleasure); achieving happiness is the main goal of life. Happiness is a direct feeling of pleasure, and unhappiness is a feeling of suffering, and the absence of suffering is already pleasure.
Skeptics also sought happiness, but understood it as undisturbed calm and the absence of suffering.

Medievalism.

The period of development of civilization, which in the history of mankind occupies almost a millennium, is very radically different from both the previous and subsequent eras. In accordance with the traditional classification, the Middle Ages were born in Europe on the ruins of the Roman world in the 5th-6th centuries, and ended in the 15th.
The collapse of the once powerful Roman Empire had been brewing for a long time; by the third century, internal stagnation and the crisis of many social institutions had reached its apogee. It was at this time that another important event occurred - Christianity turned from a persecuted doctrine into a state religion.
In 410, Rome was captured and sacked by the Visigoths. The capital and provinces were gripped by confusion and fear. In conditions of general devastation and destruction, the only surviving institution was the church. Secular power bows before ecclesiastical authority. Emperor Constantine said to the fathers of the Council of Nicaea: “God has placed you over us as Gods.” The Church began to dominate everywhere. It was persistently “driven” into the consciousness: outside the church there is no salvation, outside it all good deeds are useless.
But how does it relate to pagan, i.e. ancient, spiritual heritage? It turned out that some part of it could be used to solve the most important task at that time: to confirm and even strengthen the dogmas of the church. Preserved only in this capacity, philosophy turned into the handmaiden of theology. The task of defending and developing a detailed substantiation of Christianity arose even before the fall of Rome and is associated with a number of names, among them St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, Pope Gregory the Great.
The ambivalent attitude of the “church fathers” towards the ancient spiritual heritage inevitably led to simplification and direct distortion of the thoughts of the ancients. It has become the norm to take individual quotes out of context. As a result, ancient thought found itself in a torn, humiliated state. But in no other way could the ideologists of Christianity force pagan authors to “work” for the dogmas of the church. The guiding principle was formulated by St. Augustine: “Without faith there is no knowledge, no truth.” And this means: knowledge was unquestioningly subordinated to faith. Ultimately, only that which could contribute to the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures should be studied.
Augustine, in his main work “On the City of God,” persistently pursues the idea: there are two cities – God’s and the earth’s. The differences between them go back to the fall of the first people. The creator of the earthly city was Cain, and the entire history of this creation flows from its bloody beginning. But the City of God, founded by Abel, absorbs the faithful sons of God who have gone through earthly suffering. The entire history of the world is the procession of all tribes and peoples towards a single goal - the triumph of the City of God.
At the stage of substantiating the Christian doctrine, Tertullian Quintus Septilius Florence (c. 160 - after 220) showed himself most radically, arguing that Christianity contains the truth in a ready-made form. It does not need proof or verification: “We have no need for curiosity after Christ, for research after the Gospel.” Tertullian preferred a direct interpretation of religious texts, even if they clearly contradicted the elementary rules of logic and common sense. The rationale for this position is clear: the revelation given to us in the Gospel is incommensurate with the capabilities of the human mind. The more something seems incomprehensible and impossible in it, the more reason there is to believe in the truth of what is said. “I believe because it is absurd.”
In the 9th century, such a unique personality as Pierre Abelard appeared, who put forward the demand to limit faith to “reasonable grounds.” He was one of the first to talk about the contradictions in the judgments of the church fathers.
Johann Scott Eurigen (Origen) is of even greater interest. He did not openly oppose church dogmas, but defended the opinion that philosophy is their equal, if not the highest authority, independent of Divine revelation. Reason and revelation, Scott argues, are the two sources of truth. They cannot contradict each other, and if sometimes this happens, preference should be given to reason.
Thomas Aquinas was born in 1225, received a good education for those times, and when he was tonsured as a monk he was called Thoma, hence Thomism, the designation for Aquinas’ teaching. Two of Thomas's works still deserve attention: the Summa Theologica and the Summa against the Gentiles. Summa Against the Pagans is a guide for missionaries and converts to Christianity. For pagans, Holy Scripture is not an authority, they do not know it, and Aquinas resorts to the help of reason, proving the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. Thomas has five proofs of the existence of God: 1) the argument of the unmoving mover: everything in the world moves; any body moves because it experiences the influence of another body, this other one moves under the influence of a third, etc. But the movement must begin. There must be a source of all movements on earth. It is logical to assume that this is God. 2) There are various degrees of perfection in the world, but there must be something absolutely perfect. And this is God. But Thomas Aquinas is not so much a great philosopher as a great scholastic.
Scholasticism refers to a system of views that are divorced from life, practically sterile, and far from observation and experience. All medieval thought is thoroughly saturated with scholasticism.
The first universities were opened in the 12th century. But even there Latin and scholasticism reigned supreme. Thus, at the famous University of Paris, there were debates of this kind: what first appeared - the chicken or the egg, or how many abstract points can fit on the tip of a needle. These disputes could last more than one week.
Roger Bacon (1210-1294) was almost a contemporary of Thomas, although he lived 20 years longer than him. An amazing fact for those times: Bacon was a comprehensively developed person who had a special passion for science. He spoke several languages, was a skilled researcher of nature and a capable mathematician; he is the author of the law on the reflection and refraction of light. They expressed the idea that it was possible to build carts, ships and aircraft that would move themselves. He was accused of heresy (for ridiculing the false learning of churchmen), condemned, openly hated, and finally put in prison, where he spent 14 years.
According to Bacon, there are four causes of ignorance: 1) admiration for unfounded and unworthy authority; 2) influence of habit; 3) judgments of the ignorant crowd; 4) hiding one’s own ignorance under the guise of undoubted wisdom. All human troubles, born of lack of knowledge and lack of education, stem from these reasons, with the fourth being the worst.
Since the 11th century, virtually all medieval thinkers have been involved in a debate about the true nature of the relationship between the individual and the general. Some fiercely defended the thesis that general concepts really exist, hence the term realism. Others defended the opposite point of view: only individual objects, things, are real. General concepts – their names, concepts, nothing more. This point of view is defined as nominalism (from the Latin nomina - name, title). It would seem that this is a private, although important, problem, but it was raised by the philosophers of the Middle Ages to almost the most significant level.
Denial of dogma and doubt are necessary conditions for restoring the positions of genuine philosophy, the path to science, which would seem to be irretrievably lost. It had to be passed, the first step (destruction of authority) was the most difficult, but it was done. At the beginning it was noted that Rome could not help but perish, the “age of darkness” could not help but come. But the same can be said about the “centuries of darkness” themselves. Their death was just as inevitable.

Philosophy of the Renaissance.

1. General characteristics of the Renaissance period.

2. Main currents and schools of philosophical thought.

3. The range of problems developed by the philosophers of the Renaissance.

1. General characteristics of the Renaissance period.
At the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age, the Renaissance emerged. The European Renaissance is a unique cultural phenomenon that originated in Italy in the 13th century. The ancient heritage was being revived, but at a completely different, qualitatively new level. The time had come to praise the man who was in many ways equated with the creator God. Man was credited with virtually unlimited creative abilities. It is man and the problems of nature, history and language associated with him that are at the center of the interests of Renaissance philosophers - humanists. If in the Middle Ages mutilation, physical and mental weakness were emphasized in every possible way, and the human body was considered sinful, then the Renaissance focuses on the beauty of Man. Nature was identified with God (pantheism), thereby calling into question the dogma of the Divine creation of the world.
The term “humanism” itself is associated with the concept of “humanity”. This word was borrowed from the works of Cicero, Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni, who designated their contemporary era, which seemed to them the opposite of antiquity. They understood humanism as “that quality of a person that determines human dignity and leads to knowledge.” Humanists understood philosophy not as a science, but rather as an art. They emphasized the need for the coexistence of different forms of philosophy and diverse teachings. It was the humanists who started talking about the legitimacy of the existence of non-verbal forms of philosophy expressed in painting, music, and architecture.

European philosophy of the 17th century.

1. Conditions for the emergence of philosophy of the New Age.

3. Philosophy of Rene Descartes.
4. "Leviathan" by Thomas Hobbes.

6. The founder of solipsism is Berkeley (independently).
7. Agnosticism of David Hume (independently).

1. Conditions for the emergence of philosophy of the New Age.
Society has discovered a tremendous need for science. The development of production, trade, and the prosperity of nations increasingly depend on it. Scientific achievements, however, no matter how significant they may be, do not solve all the problems that have arisen in society.
The rapidly growing bourgeoisie is increasing its control over the economic life of the state, but its hands are tied. It is possible to remove a powerful brake on development only by rebelling against the monopoly of the nobility on power and weakening the spiritual dictatorship of the church. But first we must convince people of the need for radical changes in life.
It is from here that the system of views on the world and man in this world grows, which is called the philosophy of the New Age. This is a kind of manifesto of social strata entering the social arena, raising the head of the bourgeoisie.
2. Francis Bacon - founder of the new philosophy.
Bacon notes that, thanks to science, man becomes equal to God, and the boundaries of human capabilities are expanded. Bacon’s scientific interests were close to specific, practical needs (he died from catching a cold while conducting an experiment on how many days poultry meat can be preserved in the snow), because it was important for him to emphasize that science can bring real benefits.
Bacon may not have been the first to put forward the concept of “Knowledge is power,” but he emphasized its importance in a new way. The ultimate goal of his teaching: to help man master the forces of nature on the basis of their knowledge. The instrument of knowledge must be the correct method (a traveler wandering in the dark will find his way faster if he has a flashlight in his hand. Likewise, in science it is better if a scientist has the opportunity to rely on the correct method). According to Bacon, this is induction - the way of studying phenomena, during which they go from individual facts to general principles. Of course, even in this case there are errors in knowledge; many of them can be avoided if you separate science from religious dogma. Among other errors, the philosopher singles out the habit of worshiping “idols”: 1) idols of the race - errors inherent in the human race as a whole; 2) idols of the cave - superstitions, delusions of an individual; 3) market idols - the habit of relying on popular ideas; 4) theater idols – blind faith in authorities.
“On the dignity and growth of sciences”, “New Organon”.
3. Philosophy of Rene Descartes (Cartesius) (1596-1650).
R. Descartes took the position of dualism, when thought, in an attempt to understand and explain the world, does not start from one principle (material or ideal), but recognizes them as equal and absolutely independent. The basic principle of Descartes' philosophy is to question everything. It must be brought to its extreme limits, exhausted, then something undoubted will be revealed. This will be the foundation on which the building of a new philosophy can be built. The works “Discourse on Method” and “Principles of Philosophy” are similar and begin with skepticism regarding the data obtained through the senses. Perhaps this is just a hallucination. Arithmetic and geometry are more reliable, because the extent, magnitude, quantity are more difficult to doubt. There remains, however, something that cannot be doubted. “I think, therefore I exist” (cogito ergo sum) - this is a position that, according to Descartes, can be safely taken as the initial principle of philosophy.
Descartes proves that the world is knowable, and the main task of philosophy is the tireless search for truth, relying on reason. Hence the term - rationalism (reason - racio).
4. "Leviathan" by Thomas Hobbes.
The successor of Bacon's ideas and his personal secretary was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). “I kindle the light of reason” - an epigraph to one of Hobbes’s works - could well become an epigraph to his work as a whole.
Hobbes is convinced: religious feelings are a consequence of fear generated by ignorance. There is no difference between superstition and religion. But religion can be useful to the state as a social rein, as a means of deterring uprisings and manifestations of discontent.
Hobbes's main work, Leviathan, is an attempt to answer the questions: how did human society arise, according to what laws does it develop, what place does man occupy in it? The philosopher depicts society as a gigantic living mechanism; man is its elementary particle, and, moreover, a deeply selfish one, driven by a sense of self-preservation. In the state of nature, until the moment when society, the state, and laws arise, anger reigns in the relations of people, “a war of all against all.” It is this that leads people to the conclusion that it is better to limit their freedom by obeying the laws for the sake of safety. The society that has arisen in this way develops according to certain laws, ignorance of which is the cause of many evils, including civil wars, and their comprehension of the laws allows them to be avoided.
5. Views of Benedict Spinoza.
The most talented successor of Descartes the philosopher was the Dutchman Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677).
The only work of Spinoza that was not published anonymously during his lifetime is “The Principles of the Philosophy of Descartes.” He was delighted by one of the teacher’s principles: one cannot recognize as true what has not been proven by precise, indisputable arguments. But the philosopher is not satisfied with Cartesian dualism. He believes that the world has one beginning, and it is material. Spinoza is also much more radical about religion than Cartesius. Spinoza is a rationalist; he believes that everything should be known clearly and distinctly. Hence the exaltation of mathematics; the thinker even expounds his ethics in the form of theorems of geometry. Convinced that the world is knowable, he believes that sensory knowledge is unreliable and is the source of false ideas. But a false representation reflects what actually exists, but it is reflected so inaccurately that it becomes a delusion.
Each phenomenon has its own cause, the task of the thinking mind is to reveal the reasons that give rise to this or that phenomenon. But there are too many causes at work; it is impossible to count the number of consequences. To cover up his own powerlessness, man came up with the concept of chance, but Spinoza does not recognize chance either in nature or in the human world. There is no need to blindly resign yourself to fate; we have the power to prevent a lot by studying the world, other people and ourselves. Reasoning about this, the philosopher approaches the problem of freedom: “Freedom is a recognized necessity.”

European philosophy of the 18th century.

1. Features of the Age of Enlightenment.

1. Features of the Age of Enlightenment.
In Europe, especially in France and Germany, the ideas of the Enlightenment are gaining strength. Sometimes they talk about the Age of Enlightenment, meaning that these ideas formed a broad and powerful movement that united natural scientists, cultural figures, politicians, philosophers, convinced of the special, decisive role of enlightenment and knowledge in the social development of society, who believed that the cause of disasters and suffering people are ignorant. Truth, achieved through enlightenment, is the friend of all people. Objectively, all educators found themselves in the role of critics of the existing order - it constituted the main nerve of their creativity.
Of particular note is the sharp criticism of religion and everything connected with it that was voiced in France. Religion was perceived as the most serious obstacle to enlightenment. It is impossible not to notice: atheism is associated with materialism. Most educators are not only militant atheists, but also ardent propagandists of materialism.
The main features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment: enlightenment, historicism, socialism, democracy, radicalism, anti-clericalism.
2. Philosophers of the French Enlightenment.
Voltaire (1694 - 1778) was not an atheist, he believed in God, but did not believe that God, having created the world, continues to influence it. Such views are called deism. Voltaire's deism is based on philosophical skepticism. “I know nothing about God,” said Voltaire. He believed that we cannot know God, and therefore we should not make assumptions about how he should be worshiped. Hence the protest against any organized religion. In his work, the question could not help but arise: how was religion born? According to Voltaire, it is the result of a meeting between a fool and a swindler, the ignorance of one and the benefit of the other.
But if God is rejected, what comes in its place? The horrors of the revolution answered this question with stunning certainty. In France, apologetics for the revolution prevailed. The publication in 1751–1780 played a huge role in this. “Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts” in 28 volumes (Diderot, d’Alembert, Holbach). This publication covered the fields of physics, art, morality, religion, politics, engineering, history and commerce. The Encyclopedia managed to create a unified style; it is imbued with faith in reason, which alone can lead to a clearer understanding of the laws of nature and to a more perfect state structure.
Charles de Montesquieu (1689 - 1755) transferred educational ideas to the structure of society and its basis - law. Like Voltaire, Montesquieu considered English society to be his model. His main work, On the Spirit of the Laws, is Locke-oriented. The spirit of laws is influenced by: the territory of the country, climate, religion, morals, historical and social factors. Montesquieu believes that the guarantor of freedom is the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) as a person was an extremely unattractive person. But his philosophy is full of beautiful reasoning, calls for freedom and romantic protests. Rousseau postulates a free natural state of man, which disappears with the development of culture and social institutions. Society has a bad influence on a person, a child should learn from his own experience. He considered Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" to be the most important book for a child. Rousseau's main works: “Emile, or on education”, “The New Heloise”, “On the Social Contract”.
Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) is an outstanding personality. He was called a “pantophile” (lover of everything) because of his versatility of interests and deep erudition. He was invited to Russia by Catherine II, but soon tired of her with his advice on governing the state and was sent home. He came up with the idea of the importance of childhood in the development of consciousness, to some extent anticipating Freud. Some consider him to be a kind of forerunner of Darwin and his theory of evolution, although many people expressed similar ideas at that time.
Baron Paul Henri Holbach (1723 – 1789) wrote the book “The System of Nature” - a dry treatise that denied the existence of God and affirmed faith in nature and free will. This is the true gospel of eighteenth-century mechanistic materialism.
French educators paved the way not only for revolution in their own country, but also influenced revolutionary sentiments throughout the world. There was no social revolution in Germany. There, fateful revolutions for the history of European thought were carried out by university professors.
3. German classical philosophy.
German classical philosophy is primarily a philosophy of activity. The active subject of cognition, experience, transformation and creation of the world is the center of German philosophy. German classics are anthropological in the full sense of the word. The German philosophical classics recognized the true subject of knowledge not as the empirical, concrete “I,” but as a certain subject in general. This transcendental subject underlies every individual “I”, but at the same time goes beyond its limits. German classical philosophy derived the world of culture from the activity of the human spirit, which in Hegel even turned into the Absolute Spirit. The thinking subject therefore became the basis of the universe. The activity of people was interpreted as a whole as spiritual activity; it was actually identified with the absolute. It is no coincidence that representatives of the German classics answered fundamental philosophical questions from the positions of objective and subjective idealism.
Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804). His work is divided into two periods: pre-critical and critical. In 1749, his first work, “Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces,” was published, and the “critical period” was opened in 1781 by the epoch-making work “Critique of Pure Reason.” Kant was primarily interested in the human capacity for knowledge. Therefore, he asked the original question: “How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?” Thus, Kant seeks grounds for judgments that do not come from experience (a posteriori). Such judgments should not be analytical. Analytical judgments, according to Kant, do not expand the field of knowledge, but only continue it. “A circle is round” is an analytical judgment, because “roundness” is already contained in the concept of a circle. But “7 + 5 = 12” is a synthetic judgment a priori, since “12” is not contained in either “7” or “5”. Synthetic a priori judgments are contained in all theoretical sciences as principles.
Kant introduces a distinction between the actual appearance of the world and its apparent image. The phenomenal world is the world as it appears to our senses. The noumenal world is the world that actually exists. Although we cannot know noumena (Ding an sich - a thing in itself, a thing in itself), we know that they exist based on our understanding of the phenomenal world.
Kant creates an epistemological concept in which the main attention is paid to the conditions for achieving adequate, universal and necessary knowledge, which, in turn, should become a condition for achieving freedom. This direction of philosophy is fixed by the thinker himself with the term “transcendental” (from the Latin “to go beyond, to appear”), which means “acting as a condition of all experience.” The term “transcendent” means “going beyond all experience.”
In 1788, “Critique of Practical Reason” was published, where he sets out his practical philosophy. Kant considers the will of a person as a measure of the value of actions. Duty frees a person from being conditioned by empirical accidents. He replaces natural necessity with “the necessity of action dictated by respect for the [moral] law.” Kant calls the compliance of an act with duty as legality, in contrast to morality, which presupposes the commission of an act based on duty itself. Ought is expressed in the form of imperatives, which are divided into hypothetical and categorical. The first are valid only if a subjectively chosen goal is assumed, thereby they express only a conditioned obligation. The categorical imperative reveals the law formally and absolutely. Here is its general formulation: “Act in such a way that the maxim of your action at any moment can be considered at the same time the principle of universal legislation.”
In 1790, Kant published the Critique of Judgment, where he established the connection between nature and freedom. Kant imagines the ability of judgment as occupying a place between understanding and reason, and the corresponding feeling of pleasure and displeasure as an average between the cognitive and volitional abilities. The ability to judge, according to Kant, is the ability to subsume the particular under the universal.
Kant's philosophy is anthropologically oriented. No wonder he himself says: “All the interests of my mind (both speculative and practical) are united in the following three questions: 1. What can I know? 2. What should I do? 3. What can I hope for? All these questions come down to one, the most important thing: “What is a person?” The answer to the first question is contained in the Critique of Pure Reason, the second - in the Critique of Practical Reason. The connecting link between the “Critics...” is the “Critique of Judgment.” Kant answers the third question in his essay “Religion within the Limits of Reason Only” (1793).
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762 - 1814) gets rid of Kant's transcendental subject and puts in its place the absolute Self, from whose activity he explains the fullness of reality, the entire objective world, the reality of which outside the activity of the Self Fichte even questions. Traditionally, Fichte is labeled as an adherent of subjective idealism. Fichte's absolute “I” is an active “I” that realizes itself in overcoming various life obstacles and in free creativity. Therefore, Fichte's philosophy can be considered as a philosophy of freedom, an active philosophy that seeks to free man from external shackles. The “I” realizes itself according to a certain plan, based on philosophy, understood as a strict science - the doctrine of science, the doctrine of science (Wissenschaftslehre).
Fichte, in fact, is a philosopher of “second nature,” that is, of the reality that was created by man. He acts as an analyst of human culture. In addition to peace from God, there is also peace from man. After all, the whole world around us has long been a world created by people. Previous generations left us a legacy of what they did, their thoughts and feelings, their problems. Therefore, Fichte's idealism is original and extremely fruitful. He affirms co-creation in the actions of people, similar to the active activity of God, and gives scope for new bold undertakings in the study and comprehension of the world. Fichte's main works: “The System of the Doctrine of Morality”, “Fundamentals of General Scientific Doctrine” (more than 10 editions were published), “The Closed Trade State”, “Speeches to the German Nation”.
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775 – 1854) presented nature and consciousness as expressions of absolute reality. His worldview changed dramatically several times throughout his life. In his youth he followed Fichte, although he differed from him in his original natural philosophy. Later he came under the influence of the ideas of the mystic and theosophist Jacob Boehme (1575 – 1624). His work is divided into the following stages: philosophy of nature; transcendental idealism; philosophy of identity; philosophy of revelation. Schelling's main problem is the unity of the opposites of subject and object, spirit and nature, ideal and real. There is no system as such in his work, but his works are full of brilliant insights, the main one of which is the romantic intuition of nature as a mediator between man and deity.
It seems that the most important thing in Schelling’s work is precisely his philosophy of nature. Nature was an independent subject of study for him. Schelling's work coincided with the era of important discoveries in the fields of chemistry, physics, and physiology. Matter itself, according to Schelling, is spiritual. Nature is the “absolute” - the first cause and origin of everything; it is the unity of the subjective and objective, the eternal mind. Matter and spirit are one and are properties of nature, different states of the Absolute Mind. Schelling wrote: “Nature must be visible spirit, spirit must be invisible nature. Consequently, here, in the absolute identity of the spirit in us and nature outside of us, the problem must be solved: how is nature outside of us possible?
In his later philosophy, Schelling seeks a new attitude towards Christianity. If at the beginning of his philosophical evolution idealistic rationalism prevailed, being was identified with reason, and the organ of higher knowledge was intellectual intuition, then later he searches for truth on the other side of reason - where religion points to it. The desire to understand God as a real, and not just a conceivable absolute, leads him in his lectures on the “Philosophy of Revelation” to distinguish between negative and positive philosophy. Negative philosophy (mainly Hegel) considers what is given exclusively in thinking, while positive philosophy is related to reality.
Schelling's works: “Ideas of the philosophy of nature”, “On the world soul”, “System of transcendental idealism”, “Exposition of my system of philosophy”.

From Hegel's philosophy to dialectical materialism.

1. Hegel's philosophical system.

3. Dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels.

1. Hegel's philosophical system.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 – 1831). For other thinkers, philosophy is an attempt to comprehend the meaning of existence; with Hegel, on the contrary, existence itself tries to become philosophy, to turn into pure thinking. Other philosophers subordinated their speculation to an object independent of it: for some this object was God, for others it was nature. For Hegel, on the contrary, God himself is only a philosophizing mind, which only in perfect philosophy achieves its own absolute perfection.
The main parts of Hegel's philosophical system are logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of spirit, to which are directly adjacent the philosophy of law, philosophy of history, aesthetics, philosophy of religion, history of philosophy. Hegel understood dialectics as a pattern underlying the nature of thinking and reality itself, for each thesis already conceals its own antithesis, and both are “sublated” in synthesis. Dialectics shows contradictions (for example, life-death) as moments of transition or formation within the whole, each last state of which surpasses both previous ones, without renouncing their inherent meaning. Hegel formulated and revealed the content of the three basic laws of dialectics: the negation of negation, the unity and struggle of opposites, the law of the mutual transition of quantity into quality and vice versa.
Hegel substantiates the most important principle of his philosophy - the identity of being and thinking. Thinking is not only human activity, but also an objective essence independent of it, the fundamental principle, the primary source of everything that exists. This is a kind of spiritual principle, the basis of all natural and social phenomena, - the Absolute, which can be called “World Mind”, “World Spirit”, “Absolute Idea”. The Absolute exists initially before the real world, nature and society. Thinking “alienates” its existence in the form of matter, nature, which is the “other being” of this objectively existing thinking (Absolute Idea). The absolute idea is not only the beginning, but also the developing content of the entire world process. The Absolute goes through three stages: Idea - Nature - Spirit. Hegel calls the highest stage of development of the “Absolute Idea” “Absolute Spirit.” This is humanity itself, its history.
Works: “Phenomenology of Spirit”, “Science of Logic”, “Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences” (“Logic”, “Philosophy of Nature”, “Philosophy of Spirit”), “Philosophy of Law”, “Lectures on the Philosophy of History”, “Lectures on Aesthetics” , “Lectures on the history of philosophy”, “Lectures on the philosophy of religion”.
2. Feuerbach's anthropocentrism.
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 – 1872) entered the history of philosophy as a critic of the idealistic tradition. His philosophy is called anthropological materialism. Feuerbach proceeds from the fact that the real subject of reason is man, and only man. Man, in turn, is a product of nature. “New philosophy” makes man, including nature as the basis of man, the only, universal and highest subject of philosophy, turning anthropology, including physiology, into a universal science. The concepts of “being”, “nature”, “matter”, “reality”, “reality” for Feuerbach mean the same thing. Nature is eternal and infinite in space. Space and time are the basic conditions of all existence. There is no reality outside of them. Knowledge of the real world is possible through sensory perceptions. The task of thinking is to collect, compare, distinguish, and classify sensory data.
Feuerbach considered the criticism of religion to be the most important work of his life. Man does not have any innate religious feelings, otherwise one would have to admit that in man there is a special organ for superstition, ignorance and laziness. But there is nothing like that in it. God, in his opinion, is born exclusively in human suffering. God is what man wants to be. That is why religion has real life content and is not just an illusion or nonsense. Feuerbach substantiates a new religion, proclaims that the love of man for man, especially sexual love, is a religious feeling, since love is the true essence of religion. “Man is God, God is man”; “In a palace you think differently than in a hut - the low ceiling puts pressure on the brain.”
Feuerbach's main works: “The Essence of Christianity”, “History of Philosophy”.
3. Dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels.
Marxism is not only a philosophical doctrine, but also an economic one. Its founders, Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) are talented and multi-talented individuals. Marx accepted Hegel's view of history as a process that leads to freedom. But while Hegel thought about intellectual freedom, Marx had in mind economic and political freedom. Marx was a materialist and believed that the existence of people determines their consciousness. Human history, according to Marx, consists of a series of successively replacing each other stages - socio-economic formations, each of which consists of a base (economics) and a superstructure (ideology, politics, culture, etc.). When the productive forces of society cease to correspond to production relations, a change of formations occurs. According to Marx, there are five socio-economic formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist (two stages: socialism and communism proper). Under socialism, the main maxim of which is the principle “From each according to his ability, to each according to his work,” the exploitation of man by man disappears. Under communism, all the blessings of life should flow in full flow and the great principle will be realized: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his work.” Marx, first of all, was a talented economist. The pinnacle of his works on economics is “Capital” - a grandiose work, the second and third volumes of which were created by Engels from materials left over from Marx and published thanks to his painstaking work. The works “The Holy Family”, “Anti-Dühring”, “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, “Dialectics of Nature”, “Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy” still deserve the closest attention and study.

European philosophy of the 19th – early 20th centuries.

1. Characteristics of the intellectual background of European philosophy of the 19th – 20th centuries.
2. Philosophy of Kierkegaard.
3. Positivism of Auguste Comte.

1. Characteristics of the intellectual background of European philosophy of the 19th – 20th centuries.
In philosophy, pretentious thinkers tried to refute the classical systems of the past, especially the majestic figures of the classics of German idealism. Interest in the human personality has intensified even more. In the mid- to late-nineteenth century, philosophers began to pay more attention to freedom, both personal and social. Freedom is opposed to determinism - the idea that everything that happens is determined by natural laws, a divine plan, or human nature. Many ideas about conditioning are incompatible with the idea of personal freedom.
Most of the philosophies of the 19th century were developed precisely to solve the problem of human freedom. The spiritual climate of the era was determined by the powerful rise of natural sciences and technology. It was on this basis that the optimistic belief in the almost unlimited possibilities of man to reorganize the world was based. In defiance of the rationalism of the 18th century, various irrationalist teachings arose, simultaneously preaching faith in human power and emphasizing the tragedy of human existence in this world. Many movements in philosophy indulged in critical reflection on the crisis of traditional values. Their anti-systemic and anti-doctrinaire demands led to the opening of a privileged channel of expression in art and literature.
2. Philosophy of Kierkegaard (1813 – 1855). The most striking aspect of Kierkegaard's teaching lies in upholding the concreteness of being, the irreducibility of the individual, each individual personality, to the abstract theorization of any philosophy. In clear contrast to Hegel's system, Kierkegaard argued that a concrete person cannot be reduced to a concept, because for him, birth and death represent something much more important than stages in the dialectical process.
The concept of “despair” was introduced by Kierkegaard, who explained that we are not talking about a feeling different from fear, apprehension, anxiety; Despair does not concern anything specific, does not depend on real danger, it is despair for no apparent reason: it is the emotional state of a person when he reflects on himself in this world. Such a painful feeling is not a secondary, but a fundamental and integral component of human spirituality. Despair is a consequence of a person’s state, which is based on the category of “possibility”. A specific person - an individual - is far from being a necessary pawn of an all-encompassing system; he is always at risk of nullifying his own plans. Each person is endowed with the ability to plan the future, choose and decide, but no matter how hard he tries to be constructive, any human project contains the possibility of implementing or not implementing the plan, in addition to and regardless of his will. “In the possible, everything is possible,” Kierkegaard notes: in the world of desires and human events, the most favorable opportunity has no more chance of success than the most tragic. Despair is born precisely from this consciousness; it is the reality of freedom, the possibility of freedom. “I suffer, therefore I exist.”
An analysis of how the lives of individuals pass suggested to Kierkegaard the idea that there are three great possibilities of being, following each other. Aesthetic life is characteristic of a person who lives every minute, uses every opportunity for pleasure. With such a life, the individual forgets himself in search of yet unknown pleasures, and, in the end, indifferent to everything, often falls into despair (Don Juan). An ethical life is characteristic of a good husband and father, a citizen who fulfills his duties carefully, is capable of making sacrifices, and respects the law. The rule for him is the subordination of feelings to duty. Religious life requires renunciation of oneself in an internal relationship with God. Such life choices do not come gradually, but through conversion, complete transformation. To be a Christian means to live in fear and trembling before the deity, yet aware that you are in a world that has crucified love. True faith, the only way that can pull a person out of despair, is not peace and consolation, but paradox and breakdown.
Kierkegaard's main works: “On the Concept of Fear”, “Stages on the Path of Life”, “Unscientific and Final Postscript to Philosophical Pieces”.
3. Positivism of Auguste Comte.
The Frenchman Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) was a mathematician by training, so his works “Positive Philosophy” and “Fundamentals of Positive Politics” are characterized by the style of a dry and boring mathematical treatise.
The goal of Comte's scientific and theoretical research is to resolve the issue of the development, structure and functions of knowledge within society. Positivism represents the final stage in the development of humanity, which gradually rose from the “theological stage”, in which everything is explained in terms of magic, to the “metaphysical stage”, where the explanation is content with words (for example, the logic of the scholastics: “Why does the poppy make you sleep?” abilities"), and, finally, to the “positive stage”, at which to explain means to “legitimize”. Man knows only experience and nothing more. “There is but one absolute maxim; it’s that nothing is absolute.” Comte is recognized as the founder of sociology, which he called “social physics,” simply applying the methods of physics to society.
4. Freud about the conscious and unconscious in man.
The Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) did not think of creating a philosophical doctrine. Initially, he was interested in the purely practical issue of treating mental illness. He observed cases of hysteria that were cured by the use of hypnosis and a search for what was the original cause of the emotional shock. This shock was most often associated with events in sexual life. This observation formed the basis of his doctrine - Freudianism, which explains almost all mental illnesses based on libido ("sexual tendency") and the principles of his method - psychoanalysis, which fights all diseases by analyzing the unconscious: bringing to consciousness appears as deliverance and a return to a normal state . The unconscious is the part of the psyche that contains thoughts and desires uncontrolled by consciousness. These desires are suppressed or denied by consciousness and repressed into the unconscious because society considers them unacceptable. For example, dreams, according to Freud, are coded messages created by the unconscious part of the psyche. According to Freud, an individual's personality is determined by the child's relationship with his mother from birth to three years. Freud's followers, in fact, created Freudianism precisely as a philosophical doctrine. But the excessive exaltation of the sexual element in the explanation of existence has rightly been and is being questioned by numerous critics. Freud’s works themselves are interesting and easy to read: “Introduction to Psychoanalysis”, “Lectures on Psychoanalysis”, “Interpretation of Dreams”, “Totem and Taboo”. Of Freud's followers, it is worth mentioning E. Fromm, K. Jung, G. Marcuse, A. Adler.

Postmodernism.

1. The emergence and development of postmodernism.

3. Philosophy of postmodernism.

1. The emergence and development of postmodernism.
Postmodernism is a relatively recent phenomenon: its age is estimated at four decades. It is, first of all, the culture of a post-industrial, information society. At the same time, it goes beyond culture and, to one degree or another, manifests itself in all spheres of human life, including economics and politics. He expressed himself most clearly in art. It also exists as a well-defined direction in philosophy. In general, postmodernism appears today as a special spiritual state and state of mind, as a way of life and culture, even as a certain era that is just beginning and which, most likely, will become transitional.
The first signs of postmodernism arose in the 50s of the twentieth century in art, by the end of the 60s they spread to all areas of culture and became stable. As a special phenomenon, postmodernism quite clearly declared itself in the 70s. 1972 - the publication of the book “The Limits to Growth”, prepared by the Club of Rome, which concludes that if humanity does not abandon the existing economic, scientific and technological development, then in the near future it will experience a global environmental catastrophe. In relation to art, the American theorist and architect Charples Jencks names the date June 15, 1972, considering it at the same time the day of the death of the avant-garde, since on this day in the American city of St. Louis, a block that was considered the truest embodiment of the avant-garde was blown up and demolished. 1979: book “The State of Postmodernity” by J.F. Lyotard, in which many features of postmodernism first appeared in a generalized and relief form. In the 80s, postmodernism spread throughout the world, achieving impressive success, even real triumph. Thanks to the media, it becomes an intellectual fashion, a sign of the times, a kind of pass into the world of the elite and the initiated.
The German philosopher J. Habermas, who is the main opponent of postmodernism, believes that the assertion about the emergence of some kind of post-modernity does not have sufficient grounds. In his opinion, “modernity is an unfinished project.” It has given positive results, is far from exhausted, and there is something to be continued in it in the future. We can only talk about correcting errors and making amendments to the original project.
In the understanding of postmodernism itself, there is no complete agreement between its supporters. Some believe that postmodernism is a special spiritual state that can and actually arose in a variety of eras at their final stage, i.e. as a transhistorical phenomenon, it passes through all or many historical eras, and cannot be isolated in any particular historical era. Others, on the contrary, define postmodernism precisely as a special era that began with the emergence of post-industrial civilization.
2. Postmodernism as a spiritual state and way of life.
In the social sphere, postmodernism corresponds to a consumer society and mass media, the main characteristics of which appear amorphous, blurred and uncertain. There is no clearly defined social class structure. The level of material consumption is the main criterion for dividing into social strata. This is a society of universal conformism and compromise. It is increasingly difficult to apply the concept of “people” to them, since the latter is increasingly turning into a faceless “electorate”, into an amorphous mass of “consumers” and “clients”.
This applies to an even greater extent to the intelligentsia, which has given way to intellectuals, who are simply individuals of mental labor. The number of such persons has increased many times, but their socio-political and spiritual role in the life of society has become almost invisible. Intellectuals no longer pretend to be the rulers of thoughts, content with performing more modest functions. Nowadays, the writer and the artist, the creator in general, are giving way to the journalist and the expert.
In postmodern society, a very typical and widespread figure is the “yuppie,” which literally means “young urban professional.” This is a successful representative of the middle class, devoid of any “intellectual complexes”, who fully accepts the conveniences of modern civilization, who knows how to enjoy life, although not entirely confident in his well-being.
An even more common figure is the “zombie,” which is a programmed creature devoid of personal properties and incapable of independent thinking. This is a mass person in the full sense of the word; he is often compared to a tape recorder connected to a TV, without which he loses vitality.
Postmodern man refuses self-restraint. He tends to live one day at a time, without thinking too much about tomorrow and even more so the distant future. The main incentive for him is professional and financial success. Moreover, this success should come not at the end of life, but as early as possible. For this, a postmodern person is ready to sacrifice any principles.
The worldview of a post-modern person is devoid of solid support, because all forms of ideology look blurry and uncertain. They seem to be struck by internal lack of will. This ideology is sometimes called “soft ideology,” i.e. soft and gentle, what was previously considered incompatible peacefully coexists in her. This state of affairs is largely explained by the fact that the postmodern worldview largely lacks a completely stable internal core. In antiquity, this was mythology, in the Middle Ages - religion, in the modern era - first philosophy, then science. Postmodernism debunked the prestige and authority of science, but did not offer anything in return, making it more difficult for a person to navigate the world.
In general, the worldview of a postmodern person can be defined as neo-fatalism - a person no longer perceives himself as the master of his destiny, who relies on himself in everything, owes everything to himself. Apparently, this is why all kinds of lotteries have become so widespread.
Postmodern society is losing interest in goals - not only great and sublime, but also more modest ones. The goal ceases to be an important value (hypertrophy of means and atrophy of goals). The reason for this is, again, disappointment in ideals and values, in the disappearance of the future, which turned out to be stolen. All this leads to increased nihilism and cynicism. Postmodern cynicism manifests itself in the rejection of many previous moral values and norms. Ethics in postmodern society gives way to ethics that takes the form of hedonism, where the cult of sensual and physical pleasures comes to the fore.
In the cultural sphere, the dominant position is occupied by mass culture, and in it - fashion and advertising. Fashion sanctifies, justifies and legitimizes everything. Everything that has not passed through fashion, is not legitimized by it, has no right to exist, and cannot become an element of culture. Even scientific theories must first become fashionable to attract attention and gain acceptance. Their value depends not so much on internal merits as on external efficiency and attractiveness. However, fashion is notoriously capricious, fleeting and unpredictable. This feature leaves its mark on the entire postmodern life, which makes it increasingly unstable, elusive and ephemeral.
An important feature of postmodernism is theatricalization. Almost all events of any significance take the form of a bright and spectacular performance or show. Theatricalism permeates political life. At the same time, politics ceases to be a place of active and serious activity of a human citizen, but increasingly turns into a noisy spectacle and becomes a place of emotional release. In a sense, politics becomes religion.
Some postmodernists call for a rejection of Christianity and a return to pre-Christian beliefs, or even a rejection of the faith altogether. However, in general, a positive view of religion prevails. Postmodernism strives in every possible way to restore the previous, traditional position of religion, to elevate its role and authority, to revive the religious roots of culture, to return God as the highest value.
Science, in the concepts of postmodernists, ceases to be a privileged way of cognition and is deprived of its previous claims to monopolistic possession of the truth. Postmodernism rejects its ability to provide objective, reliable knowledge, discover patterns and causal relationships, and identify predictable trends. Science is criticized for the fact that it absolutizes rational methods of cognition and ignores other methods and methods - intuition and imagination. She strives for knowledge of the general and essential, leaving aside the particularities of the individual and random. All this dooms science to a simplified and inadequate knowledge of the world.
Many essential features of postmodernism receive their most visible embodiment in postmodern art. The passion for experimentation, the pursuit of novelty, and aspiration for the future are rejected. All this is contrasted with eclecticism, a mixture of all existing forms, styles and manners; for this, the techniques of quotation, collage, and repetition are used. Pessimism, nostalgia for the past, and hedonism of the present are affirmed. The aesthetics of kitsch is being rehabilitated.
3. Philosophy of postmodernism.
The most famous among postmodernists are the French J. Derrida, J.F. Lyotard, M. Foucault, as well as the Italian philosopher G. Vattima.
Postmodern philosophy opposes itself to Hegel, seeing in him the highest point of Western rationalism and logocentrism. Hegelian philosophy, as is known, rests on such categories as being, one, whole, universal, absolute, truth, reason. Postmodern philosophy sharply criticizes all this. In accordance with the principle of pluralism, supporters of postmodern philosophy do not consider the world around us as a single whole, endowed with any unifying center. Their world falls apart into many fragments, between which there are no stable connections.
Postmodern philosophy abandons the category of being; it gives way to language, which is declared to be the only being that can be known. Postmodernism is very skeptical about the concept of truth and revises the previous understanding of knowledge and cognition. He strongly rejects scientism and echoes agnosticism. He looks no less skeptically at man as a subject of activity and knowledge, and denies the former anthropocentrism and humanism. Postmodernism brings philosophy closer to science and literature, and strengthens the tendency towards the aestheticization of philosophical thought. In general, postmodern philosophy looks very contradictory, uncertain and paradoxical.
Postmodernism has successfully dealt with the destruction of many outdated aspects and elements of the previous era. As for the positive contribution, in this regard it looks rather modest. Nevertheless, many of its features and characteristics will remain throughout the beginning of the century.
Russian philosophy.

1. The origin and formation of Russian philosophy in the X – XVIII centuries.
We are rightfully proud of Russian culture.
“It would be strange,” noted the famous thinker N.O. in this regard. Lossky, “if such a high culture had not given rise to anything original in the field of philosophy.”
Usually the origin of Russian philosophy dates back to the 18th century, however, its beginnings arose in Rus' simultaneously with the formation of statehood and the adoption of Christianity. The assimilation of the Byzantine and South Slavic experience, the formation of writing, new forms of cultural creativity - all these are parts of a single cultural process, during which the philosophical culture of Ancient Rus' took shape. It was thanks to Orthodox theology that Rus' adopted the philosophical tradition of antiquity. The ideological centers of that time were monasteries, and the most prominent representatives of the unique Russian thought were Theodosius of Pechersk, Vladimir Monomakh, Kirill of Turov, Nil Sorsky, Maxim the Greek.
A unique form of pre-philosophy are the monuments of ancient Russian literature, such as “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor the Chronicler, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land”, “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Law and Grace” by Hilarion.
The 17th century became in history the era of the “Time of Troubles”, a church schism. But in the history of the formation of Russian philosophical culture, this was an important period, because it was then that the spiritual and academic tradition of studying philosophy was formed (the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavonic-Greek-Latin academies were opened). Under the direct influence of Western ideology in the 18th century, the formation and development of secular Russian philosophy took place, generally successfully overcoming eclecticism and imitation (G.S. Skovoroda, Feofan Prokopovich, A.D. Kantemir, V.N. Tatishchev, N.I. Novikov , A.N. Radishchev, M.V. Lomonosov)
2. Original philosophical concepts of the 19th century.
In the 18th-19th centuries, Russian philosophical thought was included in the pan-European philosophical dialogue and at the same time began to play an increasingly significant and independent role in the world of Russian culture. The study of philosophy in theological academies and universities, the publication and discussion of philosophical works, the emergence of philosophical circles, and then philosophical movements, an exceptionally deep understanding of philosophical themes in Russian literature, the philosophical content of social thought. All this bears fruit, and over two centuries Russian philosophy has fully acquired creative maturity.
In the second quarter of the 19th century, a dispute flared up between Slavophiles and Westerners. Westerners (P.Ya. Chaadaev, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev) were convinced that Russia should learn the norms of the West, having gone through similar stages of development. It would be accelerated by understanding European science and culture. Westerners, as a rule, were not interested in religion. Their ideal was political and spiritual freedom. Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) advocated the country’s originality, which should be realized thanks to autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationality. It was believed that religious ontology should come to the fore in philosophy.
The ideas of the Slavophiles were continued by the great Russian writers F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. Dostoevsky does not have a single purely philosophical work, but his ideas come through the debates and reflections of the heroes of his books. The writer's philosophical ideas center around issues of philosophy of spirit, problems of spirituality and lack of spirituality. Dostoevsky's philosophical and anthropological thoughts are characterized by deep antinomianism and intense spiritual quest. For L.N. Tolstoy’s literary work became a kind of laboratory where he explored the philosophical and ethical problems that worried him. First of all, he was interested in ethics in its religious form, and his views on the philosophy of history were interesting. At the heart of all his views is the idea of the inevitability of punishment for evil and the inevitability of the triumph of justice.
3. The fate of Russian philosophical thought in the twentieth century.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, almost all the main philosophical trends of that time were represented in Russia, and in most cases in an original creative version, and we can say that, in general, synchronization of philosophical processes in Russia and in Europe has been achieved. The philosophical process in Russia, in its evolutionary development, was interrupted in the post-revolutionary period. There is every reason to believe that thereby the philosophical potential of Russian philosophical culture was not fully realized. However, in subsequent decades, much was done: by those whose life path ended far from their homeland (N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, I.A. Ilyin, S.L. Frank, L.P. Karsavin, N.O. Lossky), and those who remained faithful to the philosophical Logos while remaining in Russia (V.V. Rozanov, P.A. Florensky, A.F. Losev).
Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900) was the son of the famous Russian historian Sergei Solovyov and the grandson of a priest. He based his philosophy on the concepts of All-Unity (the connection of everything with everything, the need to consider and the possibility of understanding any phenomenon only within the framework of such a connection and in development), Good, God-manhood and Sophia. In his philosophy, he tried to combine into one whole the positive features of various philosophical systems. He sees the meaning of human life in the implementation by man, society and humanity as a whole of the idea of Good. He interprets good ontologically as the highest essence, embodied in various forms - from the individual existence of a person to the history of mankind. Evidence of human dignity is shame: “I am ashamed, therefore I exist.” (“Readings on God-manhood”, “History and future of theocracy”, “Russia and the universal church”, “Three conversations”, “Justification of good”, in which he assigns a special role to the Russian people in the further development of the world). “I am ashamed, therefore I exist.”
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) is a philosopher of enormous popularity both in Russia and throughout the world. His philosophy is called Christian existentialism. He believed that a person belongs to two worlds: the “world” (the world reality, the conditions of human life) and the real world (ideal existence, where love and freedom reign). Man’s task is to free his spirit, to emerge from slavery into freedom, from enmity into cosmic love. This is possible only thanks to creativity, the ability for which man is gifted, for he was created in the image and likeness of God the Creator. (“Philosophy of Freedom”, “The Meaning of Creativity”, “Philosophy of Inequality”, “Philosophy of the Free Spirit”, “Russian Idea”, “The Meaning of Creativity”). Just like Solovyov, he believed that Russia should play a special role in the salvation of humanity.
Pavel Aleksandrovich Florensky (1882-1937) – encyclopedist scientist, “Russian Leonardo”. He considered the main law of the world to be the law of entropy, according to which the world tends to reduce diversity, to equalize, and, consequently, to death. However, entropy is opposed by ectropy - the ordering principle, Logos. Thanks to culture, a person contributes to an increase in diversity, i.e. resists the extinction of life in the world. The matter of the world is not separated from the spiritual meaning, i.e. "Sofia". From sophiology (the doctrine of the Wisdom of God) stems the philosophy of Florensky, the main task of which he saw in identifying the primary symbols from which various areas of reality and culture are composed. (“The Pillar and Ground of Truth: The Experience of Orthodox Theodicy”).
After the Bolsheviks came to power, the creative, free development of thought in Russia became impossible, and during the Stalin years, all non-Marxist philosophers were brutally repressed. After the death of Stalin, it became possible to turn to previously forbidden problems (M.K. Mamardashvili, A.A. Zinoviev, G.P. Shchedrovitsky, E.V. Ilyenkov, A.F. Losev).
Currently, there are several large philosophical schools operating in Russia (for example, Moscow, Yekaterinburg, etc.).

Ontology.

1. Basic terms and concepts of ontology.

3. A single picture of the world.

1. Basic terms and concepts of ontology.
Ontology is the doctrine of being as such, independent of its particular varieties. The term itself was introduced by R. Goclenius in 1613. The object of philosophy is the holistic world (natural and social) as a condition and prerequisite for human life. This position is accepted by a person without much doubt or reasoning. A person, in a certain sense, is convinced that the world exists, that it exists “here” and “now”, it is present, and with all the changes taking place in nature and society, the world will remain as a relatively stable whole. The world was, is and will be. He is being. Existence is considered as the integrity of the world.
The world is a constant cycle of transformation of existence into non-existence. Real, visible, thing-like, moving being flows out of invisible, resting non-being, and, having exhausted itself, again plunges into it. Non-existence appears as the absence of things and forms, but in it, as it were, all the possible wealth of the world is hidden, everything unborn, unmade, unformed. To be means to communicate with the world, address it, act in it, think about it. From the question of the relationship between being and non-being, the question of philosophy about the relationship between thinking and being was born. Thinking was either declared to be the result of being - this is the path to materialism, or, on the contrary, it was proven that the structure of being follows from the structure of thinking itself - this is the path to idealism.
Already in ancient times, the idea arose that, despite all kinds of changes occurring in the world of things, in each of them there must be something stable that is preserved through all transformations. This stable basis is called substance (essence). It was believed that if various bodies and things can arise and disappear, then substance is uncreated and indestructible, it only changes the forms of its existence, passes from one state to another. She is the cause of herself and the cause (ground) of all changes.
What is this first principle? Teachings that explain the essence of the world and its unity based on one substance belong to the philosophy of monism. But the very understanding of substance can be different: both matter and spirit can be thought of as substance. Accordingly, there is a distinction between materialistic, idealistic and religious monism. Monism is opposed by a dualistic interpretation of the world, according to which it is formed by two existing initial principles - material and ideal. The first of them unites the sphere of bodily-objective reality, and the second – the sphere of spirit.

2. Modern understanding of matter.
The inexhaustibility of states and forms of manifestation of matter does not mean that there is chaos and disorder in nature and that matter can take on any abstractly permissible states. Its structure and changes always obey strict laws.
As a physical reality, matter is known in two forms: substance and field. Both types differ in content and form of existence and its manifestation. Matter exists in five main states: superdense (concentration of nuclei), solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma. In the world around us, three main types of material systems can be distinguished: a system of inanimate nature (matter), living and social.
In inanimate matter, modern science studies material systems on a scale of 10-16-1028 cm. As an object of modern physics, the world today is a megaworld, the linear dimensions of which are 1023-1028 cm; macrocosm – 10-8-1022 cm (from a molecule to the objects of our Galaxy); microworld - 10-9-10-16 cm. The macroworld is the most studied; its objects are subject to the laws of classical mechanics.
At a certain stage of development of the Metagalaxy, within the framework of some planetary systems, conditions are created for the formation of material carriers of Life. Like inanimate nature, life has a number of levels of its material organization, including: precellular level systems (protein and molecular); cellular level (single-celled organisms); microorganisms; organisms; kinds; biogeocenosis; biosphere as a global system of life.
Humans are part of the sphere of life on Earth. Thanks to the ever-increasing industrial and technical impact on the environment, they disrupt the dynamics of the biosphere. These disturbances become so significant that they begin to threaten the irreversible degeneration of the biosphere. Knowledge of the laws of the biosphere, understanding one’s place in its dynamics is now one of the conditions of human existence itself and therefore acquires enormous ideological value. Within the biosphere, at a certain stage, a special type of material system begins to develop - human society. Here, too, special substructures arise - the individual, the family, social groups such as class, nationality, nation, etc.
As a special level of organization of matter, human society exists thanks to the activities of people and includes their spiritual life as a prerequisite for its functioning and development. Interaction with the environment is not simply the consumption of natural substances that are transformed by human activity. The evolution of the artificial material environment created by man is a special line of development of matter, possible only within the framework of human society.

Philosophical anthropology.
Dilemmas of uniqueness/universality, internal/external;
The unity of man, his historicity.
Human capabilities in understanding the world.
The nature of human mental functions.
Sensory cognition and its forms.
Memory and imagination.
Rational cognition: concept, judgment, inference. The unity of sensory and rational knowledge.
Creation.
Intuition. Conscious, unconscious, supraconscious.
Good and evil.
Love and hate.
Friendship and betrayal.

Basic problems of social philosophy

1. Views of philosophers of different eras on the problems of society.

2. Problems of philosophy of society.

1. Views of philosophers of different eras on the problems of society.
Social philosophy is a set of social normative teachings, the establishment of norms of social life, and not consideration of it in concrete reality. In the doctrine of society, Plato and Aristotle highlight the issues of the emergence of society from the needs of joint living, division of labor, slavery, classes, issues of educating people, reflections on the foundations of the economy and the laws of its development, etc. The concept of “society” is clarified through the concept of “state”.
Hobbes's position was that he showed: the origins of the state are rooted not in the state itself as such, but in other areas of social life. Thus, he prepared the ground for the formation of a more objective, systemic, holistic vision of society, represented by the teachings of the Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century, including Rousseau. A. Smith, a classic of English political economy, but also of social philosophy, played a special role in the development of the concept of society. Exploring the psychology of man, his place in society, studying the nature of passions, abilities, the sense of justice, he also gives a deep analysis of human labor, revealing from a materialist position the foundations of the economic life of society, that is, the objective factors of social development.
Already ancient historians (Herodotus, Thucydides) tried to comprehend the history of society, to discover connections between times and historical events, although these events were more associated with phenomena of nature and space than society. The most important step in understanding society, its essence and history was the views of the religious philosophers of the medieval era, Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. They considered divine providence to be the main driving force in the history of society, and they understood the historical path of humanity and society as the path of God and to God. But the fundamental novelty of their approach was that the Christian concept, being turned to the history of society, gave the history of mankind and society a temporary dimension. The very earthly existence of Christ became a kind of starting point for historical, social time, and the life of society acquired meaning in time, a perspective, albeit a unique one, but a perspective.
G. Hegel studied the structure of society as a whole, labor, property, morality, family, civil society, people, management system, forms of government, monarchy, the subtle interaction of public and individual consciousness, the world-historical process (its objectivity, main stages , the main regions of world history), finally, the real human individual in the infinite variety and complexity of his connections with society, with world history.
Another approach to the analysis of society was carried out by Marxists. Society is presented as a specific entity, the basis of which is social production. The laws of society are defined as objective, and the development of society itself is defined as a natural historical process. One of the features of Marx's socio-philosophical heritage is its close connection with the political-economic analysis of society.
An important contribution to the doctrine of society and its substantive definition was made by O. Comte. He understood society as a complex, integral organism, with its own qualitative certainty, but fundamentally different from the individuals that compose it. When analyzing society, he introduced a division into social statics (deals with stable (“natural”) conditions of existence, functioning of society and characterizes the reproduction of society in a certain qualitative state) and social dynamics (considers society from the perspective of movement, evolution). Comte reveals the natural laws of the development of society; he identifies three most important stages of intellectual evolution, considering it decisive in the functioning of society: theological, metaphysical, positive.
G. Spencer draws an analogy of society with a biological organism; he analyzes the role of the components of society, social institutions, showing their interconnection and purpose, revealing the movement of society as a movement from simple to complex, as a pattern.
In the 20th century views on society develop, on the one hand, in line with the ideas of historical materialism, on the other, in ideas that clearly go beyond the scope of purely social and philosophical analysis. They are represented by such thinkers as E. Durkheim, M. Weber, G. Parsons, O. Spengler, F. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, J.-P. Sartre, N. Berdyaev, Z. Freud, etc. In these concepts, the main problems of society are clearly shifted from objective factors and driving forces of its development to the subject of social development, to man and his subjective existence.
2. Problems of philosophy of society.
The social system is understood as everything related to the systemic characteristics of society as a certain integrity that unites individuals through various connections and relationships. The social individual or subject is understood as both an individual person and a state, nation, class, group.
But it is impossible to understand the essence of society unless we take into account that it is a subsystem of a larger material system, which for it is nature. It is obvious that population density and types of occupations, level of production and pace of development, political structure, level of spiritual culture depend on climate, soil, water resources, fossils, flora, fauna, etc. But one cannot strictly connect the historical destinies of civilizations with the nature of their habitat (“oceanic”, “continental”), as representatives of geographical determinism do.
Unlike nature, society is a created, cultivated system. Culture is what is created and is being created by man, both material and spiritual. It can be defined, on the one hand, as nature, processed in a special way, that is, “second nature”, satisfying the material needs of man. On the other hand, culture extends to both social relations and products of spiritual production.
An essential philosophical feature of a cultural object is its duality (natural qualities + human thought). The world of culture includes both the process and the result of human activity. Living in the world of culture, being himself its phenomenon, a person leaves behind phenomena of both material culture (things) and spiritual culture (ideas). Thus, he communicates with the past, present, future, joining the movement of world history.
In the evolution of society there are 3 forms of transmission of cultural heritage, without which it cannot exist. The first is the transfer of samples of activity technology directly, according to the principle: “do as I do”; the second is the transfer of experience indirectly using norms, regulations, prohibitions, in the form of the formula: “do this”; the third form is axiological, when ideals and values are inherited, also clothed in principles.
There are many complex problems in society: ideal (the system of ideals is crucial, since they play a system-forming role for the technology of social production), production (production of material goods, human reproduction, reproduction of material connections and relationships and spiritual production), labor ( satisfies bodily, physical needs, forms human society through the system and acts as the basis of all history), alienation (dehumanization of modern society, destruction of the integrity of the “I”), technology, demography, global problems as problems of life and death.
So, society is a super complex system, included in the system of Nature and having specificity in its emergence and development, determined by natural, socio-economic, spiritual factors, the role of which changed from era to era. Society is a probabilistic system in which not everything lends itself to logic and laws. But the modern stage of its development does not exclude, but, on the contrary, presupposes a deep knowledge of the basic laws of social development, which is possible with the interaction of all forms and levels of social consciousness - science, religion, morality, political and economic teachings.

Philosophy of Science.

3. Philosophy of chemistry.

1. Basic patterns and trends in the development of science.
The science -

Main trends in the development of science:
Differentiation of Sciences
Fragmentation of science
Education of new theories, ideas
Emergence of new scientific disciplines
Increasing the theoretical level of scientific research
The formation of science as an integral system  Integration of sciences
Universalization of science
Education of general scientific theories and ideas
Emergence of interdisciplinary knowledge
Strengthening the predictive level of scientific research
Strengthening the role of science in the general system of human culture

Basic patterns of development of science:
The development of science is conditioned by the needs of the historical development of society and social practice.
The relative independence of science, determined by the stages of development of the process of cognition itself, and not by specific tasks of practice.
Continuity in the development of ideas and principles, theories and concepts, methods and techniques of science, the continuity of all knowledge as an internally unified purposeful process.
The gradual development of science with alternating periods of relatively calm (evolutionary) development and rapid (revolutionary) disruption of the theoretical foundations of science, the system of its concepts and ideas (picture of the world).
The interaction and interconnectedness of all constituent branches of science, as a result of which the subject of one science can and should be studied by the subjects and methods of another science. As a result, a more complete and profound disclosure of the essence and laws of qualitatively different phenomena.
Freedom of criticism, unhindered discussion of controversial or unclear issues, open and free clash of different opinions.
Axiologization of science as the inclusion of value theory in the system of objective knowledge of the real world.
2. Criteria and norms of scientific character.
The principle of verification is used in the logic and methodology of science to establish the truth of scientific statements as a result of their empirical testing. Direct verification is a direct verification of statements that formulate observational and experimental data. Indirect verification is the establishment of logical relationships between indirectly verifiable statements. The principle of verification makes it possible, to a first approximation, to distinguish scientific knowledge from clearly unscientific knowledge.
The principle of falsification (K. Popper) – the criterion of scientific status is its falsifiability or refutability, i.e. Only that knowledge can claim the title of scientific that is, in principle, refutable. The principle of falsification makes knowledge relative, i.e. deprives it of absoluteness, immutability, completeness.
The rational principle is the main means of validating knowledge. Hence, it acts as a guide to certain norms, ideals of scientificity, standards of scientific knowledge.
Scientific criteria determine the standard of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is a consistent series of principles, laws and categories, as well as a logical system in the form of theories, concepts and hypotheses, justified at both the empirical and theoretical levels. The level of development of scientific knowledge is decisive in the selection of scientific criteria.
Based on the need to distinguish between scientific and pseudoscientific ideas, two signs of scientificity are distinguished: specific forms of scientific systemic knowledge and verifiability of scientific knowledge. A specific form of systemic knowledge is a scientific theory; another feature of a scientific theory is its testability. Scientific truth is associated not simply with a theory, but with a theory that initially presupposes its testability. The fundamental testability of theoretical knowledge distinguishes scientific ideas from speculative constructions.
3. Philosophy of chemistry.
In the philosophy of science, chemical problems occupy a more modest place than problems of physics and mathematics. No wonder. In physics and mathematics we find extreme cognitive situations, they lead us to the boundaries of what man understands. Physics shows how deeply a person penetrates into the “secrets of nature”, how much the smallest particles of matter, the elements of the universe, and the infinity of the Universe are subject to him. Mathematics provides examples of rigor, accuracy, and constructiveness of scientific reasoning. Modern chemistry, based on physics and mathematics, does not carry within itself the romance of pioneering that marks these sciences. Despite the fact that the subjects of chemistry and physics largely coincide, the question about the subject of chemistry is not without meaning. Chemistry and physics are distinguished not by the fragments of nature that these sciences study, but by ways of knowing, ways of seeing the world.
Chemistry, however, is interesting for its scale and wide involvement in material production, economics, and everyday life. Global problems of our time are, to one degree or another, tied to this science. A scientific worldview that does not take into account chemical knowledge would be incomplete.
Hegel in Logic mentions three definitions of “objectivity” - mechanism, chemistry, organism. A mechanism is a connection of parts when there is no “spiritual connection” between them. When we talk about mechanism, we remember mechanical, mechanical behavior, rote learning and perception. There is no internal unity or initiative in the mechanism.
Chemistry means that unity that follows from the nature of the parts. A chemical connection has its own specifics and, unlike a mechanical connection, is not reduced to the combination and addition of parts. A chemical aggregate interacts with other aggregates as a whole. The components of this totality are “elements”, “matter” (in modern terminology - chemical elements), which manifest their nature in relation to other components and communicate this nature to the entire totality.
An organism is a union of component parts in which a goal, a unity that has a teleological nature, is realized. In other words, the body is what contains life and soul.
Engels has no abstract mechanism, chemistry, or organism. He introduces the concept of mechanical, physical, chemical and biological forms of motion of matter. Each of these forms of motion has its own material carrier: mechanical - the movement of macroscopic bodies, physical - molecules, chemical - the movement of atoms, biological - protein bodies. But after the first third of the twentieth century, what Engels called the chemical form of motion became indistinguishable from what physics studies.

The Soviet philosopher B.M. Kedrov played a significant role in the debate about the movement of matter. “The chemical form of motion of matter is that form of motion in which the internal structure of the molecule changes as a result of the movement of its constituent atoms, but in which destruction or interconversion of atoms does not occur.” Thus, highlighting the chemical form of the movement of matter, he defended the hierarchical structure of the world, where there is a higher and a lower.